Representation of Race and Ethnicity in the Media - Literature review Example

Representation of Race and Ethni in the Media Literature Review Introduction One of the most prominent features of globalisation has been the diversification of cultures across global societies. Currently, virtually all developed countries are composed of diverse ethnic and racial society (Dreher, Gassebner & Siemers, 2012). From a biological point of view, race represents a population or a group of people who share physical features or genetic make-up (Carter & Virdee, 2008). For instance, race may be used to broadly describe populations with similar physical features (white/black race) or religion (Muslim race) or the entire humanity (human race). However, social scientists have dismissed the biological definition of race by treating race as a social construct. According to this school of thought, race is an illusion that is subject to human invention and prejudice (Kalkan, Layman & Uslaner, 2009). On the other hand, ethnicity is collectively used to refer to ethnic groups that are distinguished from each other based on exceptional set of cultural attributes. Such traits may encompass language, cultural practices, diet or religion. In essence, members of a certain ethnic group normally perceive themselves as an ethnic community that shares historical experiences and roots (Carter & Virdee, 2008). Almost every individual ascribes to an ethnic identity; to one extent or another. On many occasions, ethnicity has been used as a basis of social ranking in the sense that a person may be ranked based on his/her ethnic group. Race and ethnicity are terms that have increasingly been conflated to present them as a single construct (Yuki, 2005). Ethnocentrism often emerges in the midst of discussions on race and ethnicity. In sociology, ethnocentrism is conceptualised as belief that one’s group behaviour and values are right and even superior to others behaviours and values (Varisco, 2007). Much as pride in one’s group dynamics promotes a sense of loyalty and solidarity, it may lead to individuals or groups to believe that certain ethnic or racial groups are inferior. Within such a context, discriminatory practices propagated against certain ethnic or racial groups may be justified and this has resulted in cases of racism. Furthermore, ethnic and/or racial pride may lead to segregation of racial or ethnic groups (Karim, 2006). Media Representation of Race and Ethnicity The 21st century has witnessed unprecedented growth of media technologies; which has diversified information sources. Despite the variety of news sources, television and newspapers remain the most preferred source of news for a majority of people. Various news channels developing community-related programs in combination with syndicated and news programs (Castells, 2009). Yet, concerns have always emerged with regards to how news channels cover issues of race and ethnicity. News editors and producers ideally have the discretion to decide the kind of news to print or air. Ethnic and racial issues and the meanings attached to them depend on news editors’ and producers’ personal understanding, experience and background on race and ethnicity (Bowen, 2008). Many scholars have emphasized that the primacy of ethnicity and race is to construct identity (Beck & Sznaider, 2006). The media represents a principal channel through which ideology is disseminated in the sense that it uses portrays and images to generate presentations of the social world. The media thus develops an understanding in the mind that influences people’s conceptualisation of the social world through presented images and portrays (Castells, 2009). The role of the media is to promote a certain ideology and as such, people rely on ideology to construct an understanding; make sense of social reality and their place in it; and to construct an argument. One of the ideologies promoted by the media is on the issue of race and ethnicity (Peelo et al., 2004). A significant amount of research has shown that the media has the inherent power to control and influence beliefs and attitudes held in people’s imaginations (Castells, 2009). The main idea behind this assertion rests on the fact that the media is a key source of information in society and transmitter of racial/ethnic representations. The power of media is particularly crucial in shaping beliefs, attitudes and understanding of race and ethnicity. For instance, a quantitative research by Bowen (2006) indicates that attitudes and perceptions of whites towards non-whites are largely shaped by media representations of non-whites. Nevertheless, findings from the study indicate that whites have negative attitudes towards non-whites even though they acknowledge stereotyping of ethnic minorities in the media. Findings from the aforementioned study present a clear picture of how media representations of race and ethnicity influence people’s beliefs, attitudes and perceptions. A majority of white populations may not have direct experience and understanding of black culture but increasingly rely on what is portrayed in the media. The manner in which the media represents ethnic and racial issues plays a crucial role in reinforcing beliefs and attitudes (Yuki, 2005). News editors, producers and reporters practically select the kind of information to disseminate and that selection is always based on ideological motivation. Therefore, the media has usurped the traditional role of the church, school and state to shape opinions and attitudes in contemporary society (Castells, 2009). Although the media is seen as prominent influence on people’s beliefs and perceptions, some scholars argue that the media does not have unlimited control over racial and ethnic representations (Pollak & Kubrin, 2007). Media products are essentially subject to the conditions and requirements set by advertisers, the audience and policy makers. Therefore, racial representations portrayed by the media reflect dominant economic and ideological imperatives within the wider society. Media images of race and ethnicity will thus not reflect an accurate representation (Mastro et al., 2009). Within this theoretical underpinning, media representations are neither independent nor objective given that not all ethnic and racial groups in society are represented in the media (Peelo, 2006). 1. Ethnic and Racial Stereotyping in the Media Ethnic minorities are particularly marginalised by a white ideology; which has the tendency of portray itself as the norm and superior race. Based on this ideology, media networks are at liberty to choose the kind of ethnic/racial representations to be circulated and portrayed to the general public (Peelo, 2006). A majority of studies into the ethnic/racial minority representations in the media have identified two fundamental issues; stereotypical representation and underrepresentation. Scholars suggest that these two forms of media representation continue to subordinate ethnic/racial minorities to the white ideological hegemony (Nacos & Torres-Reyna, 2007; Rada & Wulfemeyer, 2005). Media networks have been seen as potentially contributing to the profiling of criminals based on race and ethnicity. Depictions of criminality are readily accessible through media networks and these depictions influence people’s perceptions of criminality (Peelo, 2006). In most cases, media networks disproportionately cover stories on crimes involving Blacks than Whites. The stories covered in media are often followed with a chronology of previous crimes that were committed by the Blacks to reinforce the link between crimes and Blacks. Media coverage, coupled with political rhetoric on race and crime, has reinforced racialized opinions on criminality for those consuming media content (Welch, 2007). Government officials and politicians have on many occasions been captured on media networks reinforcing the link between crime and ethnicity/race. This notion then develops a similar image in the minds of those who consume media content. Racial/ethnic politics has in fact preoccupied media coverage for decades; particularly during political campaigns. Since voters readily accept racial/ethnic politics, politicians have used the media to garner constituent support on political decisions. Media images thus become potentially powerful especially when promoting an ideology that has majority public support (Welch, 2007). Media networks disproportionately report on crimes than have been committed by blacks and other ethnic minorities (Hayward & Yar, 2006). Therefore, uniform and consistent portrayal of blacks and ethnic minorities as criminals become reinforced and imprinted in the minds of people. Studies that have explored the correlation between criminality and race have unanimously pointed towards whites’ perceptions that non-whites (particularly blacks) are more violent and readily engage in criminal activities than other racial groups. Subsequently, the image of a young Black man is portrayed in the media as that of a criminal and a violent thug (Welch, 2007). Based on these stereotypes, people form ethnic minorities are increasingly profiled as criminals (Richardson & Burridge, 2008). 2. Racial and Ethnic Relations The growth of media in Britain coincided with post-war migration. In view of that, television was central in disseminating cultural representation of blacks and ethnic minorities in British society (Greer, Ferell & Jewkes, 2007). Documentaries produced in the 1950s and 60s largely contributed to the portrayal of black populations in British society as a social problem. Misconception of blacks as a social problem would then create the notion of us (whites) and them (blacks). Early soap operas also excluded black and Asian characters since producers felt that their inclusion would disrupt the storyline by revealing racist perceptions of white actors (Amy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). Consequently, blacks and ethnic minorities continue to be represented in the media based on racist perceptions and stereotypes. The narrow range of black representation in the media results in the fallacy of generalisation that all blacks are the same (Uslaner, 2010). On that account, a narrow representation of blacks in the media simultaneously overlooks differences and diversity within the black population. When asked how they feel about media representation, blacks hold an opposition stance to the negative representation of blacks in the media. Media representations are seen by blacks as ideologically motivated. Blacks and minority groups approach media representations of ethnicity and race with their own interpretations. They believe that media representations lead to negative attitudes towards them by people from other ethnicities/races (Bjonstrom et al., 2010). Media representations of race and ethnicity generally promote limited and negative images that overlook diversity within ethnic/racial minorities while at the same time propagating the white race as a unitary identity (Verkuyten & Brug, 2004). However, the white race is not considered a homogeneous culture in the sense that different ethnicities ascribe to the white race. On the contrary, the homogeneity of the white race stems from a discourse that has been promoted in society and reinforced by the media. Problematic race relations have resulted in growing dissatisfaction with the manner in which media represents ethnic/racial issues. Accordingly, multiculturalism emerged in the 1970s as a way of looking at blacks as a diverse rather than homogeneous community (Karim, 2006). Virtually all metropolis and cities across western countries are currently composed of populations from diverse racial, ethnic, religious, cultural and social backgrounds. In response to globalization, western countries have formulated and adopted policies that foster diversification in every sector of the economy. Multiculturalism is one such policy that aims at fostering cultural diversity. Architects of multiculturalism argue that it decimates racism by opening up space for diverse cultures (Parekh, 2008). Concerns are now being raised over the ability of multicultural societies to challenge racism. The question that now begs is whether multicultural societies challenge or reproduce racial notions in contemporary society (Carter and Virdee, 2008). Even though multiculturalism intended to promote equitable representation in the media, it has failed by creating new and complex images of racism. Multiculturalism has not only reinforced existing stereotypes in the media but has also generated new forms of stereotypes (Bontrayer, Bales & Chiricos, 2005). In an attempt to portray racial minorities in more positive ways, have unintentionally created subtle and new forms of racism. Research findings indicate that portray of advances made by ethnic minorities usually end up creating the notion that ethnic minorities have laid claim to what rightly belongs to the whites. Findings from other studies indicate that successive TV shows featuring blacks (for example The Cosby Show) create the notion that blacks who cannot live up to the standards of TV stars are to blame themselves for their failure (Greer, Ferrell & Jewkes, 2007). However, other scholars disagree with previous sentiments by arguing that deep-rooted stereotypes and perceptions about ethnic minorities can be challenged when these minorities are included in media productions (Amy, Fiske & Glick, 2007). A research on British Chinese (BC) found out that BC people were serving as ideal channels to challenge stereotypes propagated against them in the media. Findings from the research further indicated that inclusion of more British Chinese characters on television was effective in presenting new ideas and alternative representations of BC in media (Ding, 2007). Generally, findings from this study underscore the benefit of including ethnic minorities on television without the need to feel a racial quota or racial agenda (Castells, 2009). Rapid technological advances and globalisation have led to the fragmentation of the nation-state. Political pundits have argued that the two phenomena have resulted in a sophisticated form of racism. The new form of racism and discourses about purist ethnicities promotes the perception of “their bad actions against our good ones”. This continuing media representation of new racism has instilled negative prejudices and perceptions and thus reproducing racism in society (Carter & Virdee, 2008). However, studies on the consumption of media content in indicate that minority groups are increasingly consuming media content even if the content does not represent or promote their (audience) social realities (Uslaner, 2010). A study by Castells (2009) indicates that consumption and usage of such media content is based on the connection that the audience makes with TV personalities. Conversely, other scholars argue that multiculturalism and technology has changed the way people interpret and conceptualise media content (Karim, 2006). A study by Kam and Kinder (2007) has indicated that audiences do not automatically view or accept media representations in the way that editors and producers may have hoped. Participants in the study were even amazed at how people interpreted media content in the past. For instance, racial presentations in the 1950s cannot be interpreted the same way in modern society because much has changed since then. Other scholars argue that a majority of media channels do not necessarily promote negative representations of race and ethnicity (Castells, 2009). 3. Media Representation of Religion While Britain and other civilised societies have embraced cultural diversity to accommodate cultural differences and assimilate immigrants, immigrants from the Middle East and other Islamic states are discriminated in these societies (Poole, 2009). This discrimination has been blamed on high cases of intolerance amongst the natives. In response, a section of Muslim population has adopted radicalised views against Westerners (Goldberg, 2008). Xeno-racist attitudes towards Muslims, refuges and other immigrants have been further exacerbated by government policies and media reports (Goldberg, 2008). Fekete (2001) notes that Western countries’ interventions in Muslim countries has paved way for gutter media to keep up with demonising particular societies and even nations. These actions are shaping opinions that wedge war against Muslims. The aftermaths of September 11, 2011 attacks in the United States, Salman Rushdie Affair and the 2001 riots have placed Muslims under increased scrutiny. The term “Islamophobia” has emerged as a key term describing the increasing isolation of Muslim faithful that reside in western countries (Frost, 2008). In the United Kingdom, Islam has emerged as the first growing religion and Islamophobia has gained momentum in the country (Poole, 2009). A 2004 study indicated that systematic discrimination of Muslims and the recurrent negative representations in the media has greatly marginalised the Muslim community in the UK (Ahmad, 2006). Just like the non-white race, Islam does not represent a homogenous community but rather a set of diverse religious practices that vary from culture to culture. Through the phenomenon of Orientalism, western cultures perceive Islam and Muslims as the “Other”, or alien race that need to be tolerated or managed in society (Varisco, 2007). The media has reinforced societal misconceptions about Islam and Muslims in the manner in which they are represented in news items and features. The media represents Muslims as fundamentalists, suicide bombers, terrorists, militants, sexists and much more. Such stereotypes have been linked to contexts of conflict, war and violence (Allen, 2001). Stereotypes propagated against Islam and Muslims in the media have come to be representative of Islam as a religion and Muslims. Dominant stereotypes often depict Muslim men as extremists or terrorists. On the other hand, Muslim women who wear hijab are seen as in need of emancipation from violence and patriarchal oppression. Western media has also portrayed all Muslims as being intolerant to western culture and other religions (Srebeng, 2002). Therefore, media representation of Islam and Muslims has reinforced the ‘Us’ and ‘Them’ dialect that continues to vilify Muslims in contemporary society. Much as journalists have been condemned for propagating stereotypes against Muslims, some journalists have taken a front role in pacifying religious sentiments (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2010). A review of articles published in major newspapers in Britain has numerous instances when the media has reported positively on religious matters. The media often lends voice to Muslim leaders to condemn “holy war” and reiterate that not all Muslims are advocates of the violent rhetoric that is commonly associated with Muslims and Islam (Ahmad, 2006). Nevertheless, media networks have also carried stories of Muslims uniting with Christians to push forward a unified agenda. Such media depictions have represented Muslims as being tolerant to the views of other religions. The media has also demonstrated the commitment of Muslims in contributing to the development of the communities in which they live (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2010). Beyond negative and positive representation of Islam and Muslims in the media, the media has also demonstrated neutrality. Since September 11 attacks, terror groups have always been linked to Islamic militants (Ahmad, 2006). Accordingly, reporters tend to attach the term Islam or Muslim to terror groups when reporting on the activities of such groups. For instance, it is not uncommon to hear news reporters use sentiments like “the Islamic group has been involved in multiple terror activities”. Such sentiments directly link terror to Islam. However, some media networks have been impartial when reporting on terror activities by avoiding linking terror to religion (Frost, 2008) Other scholars have argued that the media often times propagates mixed sentiments on Muslims and Islam in their news coverage. In such cases, takes a positive stance on terrorism but at the same time propagate the perception that Muslims are terrorists and intolerant (Poole & Richardson, 2010). For instance, findings from a recent study indicate that the media has highlighted the sentiments of Muslim leaders who have condemned terrorism and terror groups; particularly in the Middle East and during the Arab Spring. However, the same media has portrayed Arab leaders as condoning terror activities within the region. Such representations send mixed perceptions and the media ends up promoting divergent ideologies that suits the moment of time (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2010). Reference List Ahmad, F. (2006) “British Muslim perceptions and opinions on news coverage of September 11”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 6(32), pp. 961-982. Amy J.C., Fiske, T.S. and Glick, P. (2007) “The BIAS map: behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), pp. 631-648. Beck, U. and Sznaider, N. (2006) “Unpacking cosmopolitanism for the social sciences: a research agenda”, The British Journal of Sociology, 57(1), pp. 1-23. 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