Issues in Contemporary Sociology: Sexuality and Gender - Term Paper Example

Issues in Contemporary Sociology SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN GENDER AND SEXUALITY OVER THE PAST TWENTY YEARS (Focus on UK Society) Introduction Sex has always been a “ticklish” subject in sociological research. The fact that this statement would likely be regarded as trivial witticism is the reason why American historian Bern L. Bullough once remarked that sex in history is a ‘virgin field’, saying ‘Historians have been reluctant, exceedingly reluctant, to deal with such a delicate topic.’ [Weeks, 1997]1 However, sexuality and gender issues are much more complicated than the mere act of procreation. Modern sexuality and changes in the ways individuals perform their gender roles have social implications that have repercussions on kinship and family relations; economic and social power structures; forms of ‘social regulation’; and political and moral change [Weeks, 1997]2. It is thus important that the study of contemporary sexuality and gender relations be given due attention, particularly changes that have occurred in this area in the past twenty years. Discussion Sexuality and Gender Roles While sexuality and gender roles appear to be synonymous, subtle differences on connotation exist between the terms as used in sociological studies. A person’s sexuality is innate in, or emanating from within, him or her; it refers to the sum total of his/her attitudes and preferences as determined by his/her sexual orientation. One might say one’s “sexuality” makes that person heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual, depending on the partners he or she is (or is not) attracted to. However, unlike sexuality, gender roles are imposed from without, in the form of a variety of social influences. Starting from the socialization phase of childhood and adolescence, gender roles exert influence on people’s actions throughout their lives. When one feels ill at ease, or even resentful, of gender roles, and internal conflict may result [Gender Roles Forum, 2008]3 . Gender roles vary over time, and as they evolve they in turn create social upheavals and reforms that spawn profound changes in society and the nation in general. Sexuality in the Eighties In post-Victorian society, the regulatory framework has evolved such that gender roles and, consequently, attitudes towards sexuality have essentially been redefined. Storry and Childs [2002]4 provides the following timeline of important developments in British history which indicate the trend towards an increasingly permissive outlook, until the 1970s: Timeline: 1831 – Infant Custody 1848 – Factory Act 1861 – Abolition of death penalty for sodomy 1882 – Married womens property act 1928 – Vote for women over twenty-one 1967 – Abortion made legal 1969 – Divorce reform act (divorce by mutual consent) 1975 – Sex discrimination act 1987 – Clause 28 [Section 28’s rationale was in order to ban authorities from promoting acceptability of homosexuality as a ‘pretended family relationship’] 1993 – Child support agency 2000 – Age of gay consent lowered to sixteen Anxieties about the sexual mores of the younger generation certainly preceded the so-called sexual revolution of the 1960s [Storry and Childs, 2002]5. The sixties and the seventies saw a more liberal regard towards abortion, divorce and sexual discrimination. Likewise were new reforms given impetus on the issues of obscenity and censorship, and homosexuality. The import of these developments was not lost upon the new Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, who was elected into office for the first time in 1979, and re-elected in 1983 and 1987. During the first two terms of the Thatcher government, government thrusts were concentrated on the economic and social restructuring of UK society; the moral agenda was kept, relatively, in the back burner. However, as observed by Sir Keith Joseph, moral regeneration was integral to the success of the Thatcherite government. “Moral reform, backed by the new authority of the state, was seen as a necessary corollary of economic liberalism.” [Weeks, 1997]6 During the second term, senior ministers such as Norman Tebbit directed their attacks on the so-called ‘sexual revolution’ and what they termed as the ‘moral collapse of society’, setting the stage for the direction of Thatcher’s third term. In the late 1980s, parliamentary debates attempted to institute changes in order to arrest the perceived downslide in morality. There were moves to censor sexually explicit images on television and in publications. David Alton attempted, unsuccessfully, to introduce legislation to outlaw abortion after 18 weeks of pregnancy. In 1987, Clause 28 (also known as Section 28) of the Local Government Act 1988 was promulgated, which sought to make illegal the ‘promotion’ of homosexuality by local authorities. What was remarkable was that this ‘moral counter-revolution’ did not emanate from religious groups, but were essentially political forces, at the centre of which was the belief that the moral ills of society stemmed from and resulted to a weakening of the foundation stone of society, the family. Despite these attempts, social outlook proceeded to be more liberalised, excluding the issue of homosexuality. Other salient developments in the 1980s include the new reproductive technologies that were made available during this decade, such as the pill, but particularly the possibility of in-vitro fertilisation, which also posed difficult moral dilemmas. Sexuality in the Nineties and Onwards Until the eighties, the common expectation was that for each succeeding generation, sex would inevitably be progressively less restricted. In the nineties, however, concern over the HIV and AIDS has quickly reversed this trend. Some social observers have commented that many of today’s youth have more restricted sex lives and fewer sex partners than their counterparts in the sixties and seventies. Whereas in the past, the concern centered on unwanted pregnancies, a concern supposedly addressed by the new methods of contraception, this no longer represents the worst possible fears of the sexually active youth. Information campaigns on ‘safer sex’ have also increased openness in discussing sexual practices that fall beyond the scope of ‘straight sex’. The accepted norm of ‘conventional sex’ as being the only manner of having sex has begun to wane [Storry and Childs, 2002]7. The new openness about sexuality and gender issues which was fostered by the urgent need to inform about AIDS and HIV has created new perspectives particularly on restrictive notions of gender roles. While much of the research in the nineties dealt with the various themes of female subordination to male domination, actually the male gender has come to be perceived as himself subject to social pressures to exert assertiveness and attain material success. As boundaries concerning socially acceptable sex become increasingly indistinct, more men, particularly the more affluent, have found release by resorting to ‘elite’ prostitutes. Such prostitutes usually operate from their home, charge twice the price of the pimp-managed counterparts who ply the streets, and specialize in domination and role playing. Research on the power-control aspect of this phenomenon was conducted by Julia O. Davidson. She observed that prostitution allows the client to ‘transgress the rules’ that apply to sexual relationships and frees him from the ‘confines of his masculinity’ (the ‘burdens’ of machismo or protector). With a prostitute, men can ‘purchase time out’ of facets of gender and sexual ideologies (e.g. concerning erection problems, premature ejaculation, small penises, obesity, shyness, masochism, age and baldness, and transvestites) which they find oppressive [Davidson, J.O., 1996]8. Probably one of the most important concerns of feminism is the issue of domestic violence, which includes bodily harm, usually accompanied by verbal threats and harassment, emotional abuse, or the destruction of property as means of coercion, control, revenge, or punishment on a person with whom the abuser is in an intimate relationship [Human Rights Watch, 1995]9. Below are global data on incidents of domestic violence [Burn, 2005]10. Prevalence of physical violence against women by an intimate partner 1991-1999 Last 12 months Ever Australia 22% - Canada 3 29% Korea 38 - Switzerland 6 - United Kingdom 12 30 United States 1 22 The solution to domestic violence is seen to lie in female empowerment, since women’s socioeconomic and psychological dependency on men makes it difficult for them to leave situations of violence or sexual harassment. Efforts towards female politico-economic empowerment gained institutional support. By the year 2003, all countries that allow males to vote have likewise granted women rights to suffrage, except Kuwait. Furthermore, figures from the Inter-parliamentary Union of 2003 show that only 15 per cent of the world’s lawmakers are female (though up from 11 percent in 1995). This has prompted the United Nations to require governments to have a 30 per cent female representation in the composition of their lawmaking bodies [Burn, 2005]11. Conclusion From a sociological viewpoint, and disregarding the religious-moral construct, it is clear that the shattering of traditional concepts of male dominance and female subservience can lead to beneficial results. As stated by Riane Eisler, “Clearly both men and women have the biological potential for many different kinds of behaviours. But like the external armour or shell that encases insects and other anthropods, androcratic social organization encases both halves of humanity in rigid and hierarchic roles that stunt their development.” [Burn, 2005]12 With the rigid roles discarded, it is possible that both men and women may find their way to realizing their full potentials as human beings. On the other hand, a more general tendency may be detected in the developments of gender roles and attitudes towards sexuality since the eighties. The breakdown in traditional familial structure, the growing complexity of personal relationships and the diversity of sexual patterns result in sexual plurality which causes anxiety as much as it does opportunity. Such circumstances make it rather difficult to make clear-cut moral and ethical decisions and choices, thus introducing instability in social structure through its threat on the family, the basic unit of society [Weeks, 1997]13. As in all social phenomena, developments have both beneficial and disadvantageous implications. It is but hoped that social institutions could provide the proper and timely response to address dilemmas that may develop to the point that an appropriate social construct will eventually emerge. References Davidson, J.O. (1996), “Prostitution and the Contours of Control”, Sexual Cultures: Communities, Values and Intimacy, edited by Weeks, J. and Holland, J. under the auspices of the British Sociological Association, St. Martin Press, N.Y. pp. 181- 197 Blaikie, A. (1996) “’Immorality’ to ‘Underclass’: The Current and Historical Context of Illegitimacy”, Sexual Cultures: Communities, Values and Intimacy, edited by Weeks, J. and Holland, J., St. Martins Press, New York. Burn, S. M. (2005) Women Across Cultures: A Global Perspective, Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York Gender Roles Forum (2008) “Gender Roles”, Net Industries, LLC, as seen in http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/8/Gender-roles.html. Retrieved January 13, 2008. Holland J., Ramazanoglu C., Sharpe S., and Thomson R., (1996), “Reputations: Journeying into Gendered Power Relations”, Sexual Cultures: Communities, Values and Intimacy, edited by Weeks, J. and Holland, J., St. Martins Press, New York. Human Rights Watch, 1995. The Human Rights Watch global report on women’s human rights. New York: Human Rights Watch. Letherby, G. (2003) Feminist Research in Theory and Practice, Open University Press, Celtic Court, Buckingham Lloyd, Genevieve (2002) Feminism and History of Philosophy: Oxford Readings in Feminism, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Millett, K. (2000), Sexual Politics. University of Illinois Press, Chicago. Storry, M. and Childs, P. (2002), British Cultural Identities, Second Edition, Routledge, London Weeks, J. (1997) Sex, Politics & Society: The regulation of sexuality since 1800, Second Edition, from the series “Themes in British Social History”, Longman Group Ltd., London. Read More