Structural Functionalist Theory to Homosexuality as Deviant Behaviour - Coursework Example

Delinquency and Strain Theory Using the strain theory, Merton focuses on opportunity and believes that society focuses on goals rather then the meansto achieve these goals. There are the same expectations for both lower and higher class citizen; however the lower class does not have the same opportunities to achieve these goals. Introduction It is the complex task to explain delinquency because a multitude of factors contribute to understanding of what is the cause for someone to engage in delinquent behavior. The social factors most likely are the most useful in explaining delinquency, juvenile in particular. The social roots of delinquency have been analyzed using theories developed by sociologists as well as criminologists. Some of them view delinquency as function of one individual while others describe it from the macro level of societal structure (Bernard 1984). The theories that will be presented here will be applicable to analyze of crime and delinquency in society. Society has embedded many ideas promoting the success in life. It puts a large emphasis on money, power, commodities, and material goods to prove who we are and how much one has accomplished. Unfortunately we are all given the idea that success is one universal lifestyle and we should all aim to work towards it. However, only few have the means to attain these goals. In this paper I will discuss the correlation between social classes and delinquency. It is important to find the root of the delinquency in order to start eliminating it, leading to a brighter future for those in a lower-class, enabling the youth to have fair opportunities in society. It is a widespread opinion that youth from lower socioeconomic class is more open for delinquency and crime. Through the theories of such sociologists as Merton, Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin I will try to prove that this opinion is right. The strain theory is similar to the structural functionalism and argues that “people who commit crimes have basically the same values as everybody else.., however, the avenues for the achievement of success are greatly restricted for people in the lower class. Thus, they are faced with a cruel dilemma: either they abandon the major American values of success and prosperity or they abandon another - obedience of the law” (Leighninger 331). Theories Merton’s Strain Theory Strain theory is mainly applied to juvenile delinquency among the boys of lower class and is based on the idea that the value of success they have is shared with the larger culture, but the stratified socialization makes it impossible to compete effectively. Therefore, this pressure is causing the strain and young adults are trying to resolve it. The condition of the society prevents the poor youth from attaining success and lead to defiance of socially accepted norms. Merton has stated that sometimes the society is structured in the way promoting delinquency. As Calhoun has specified “some social structures exert a definite pressure on persons in society to engage in non conforming behavior” (174). Merton was focused on American society because United States is one of the richest countries in the world but the wealth is not equally distributed. Too much emphasis is being made on financial wellbeing. Children grow up with the dreams to become a millionaire. Distress and strain result from this pressure – even parents say to their children that if they do not go to college they will be lower class. Criminal activity is like the struggle to preserve the self esteem. Robert Merton added to Durkheim’s concept and focused on the idea of strain between aspirations and expectations in society. According to Merton anomie was the state of structural strain between the almost universal cultural goals of the “American Dream” and the much more restricted institutionalized means for achieving them (Deutchmann p.246). Merton believes deviance is a form of adaptation to the strain that exists between, “culturally prescribed aspirations and socially structured avenues for realizing these aspirations” (Merton, 1949/1968, p.188). His theory locates the primary cause of deviance as the socialization of individuals in all social classes to want what only those in privileged social level can obtain by non deviant means. (Deutchmann p. 247) Merton came up with five alternative modes of adaptation to the means and ends relationship that exist. Modes that are largely determined by the availability of means in a particular parts of the social structure. Merton explains, 1) Conformity occurs when there is little strain between goals and means. 2) Innovation covers behavior such as cheating, stealing, or creative solutions. This usually occurs when success is emphasized, but no attention given to the means. 3) Ritualism occurs when the means are accepted but in a manner that is disconnected from the declared goals. 4) Retreatism occurs when the standard social goals and institutionalized means are both rejected. For example goals are not worth the trouble to achieve them; one would not cheat in order to achieve the goal because the goals are not worth the trouble. 5) Rebellion occurs when the goals and means established in the society come under attack. (Deutschmann, p. 248). Albert Cohen and Status Frustration Cohen focused on male lower-class delinquency by showing that strain exists between the middle-class standards of the public school system that clash with the resources and needs that lower-class boys have access to. According to Cohen, gangs do not just reject middle class norms, they ignores them. (Deutchmann, p.247-248). His theory has four basic principals: (1) Universal standards of evaluation are based around middle-class youth and do not take into account what the lower-socioeconomic-class youth may not have access to at home. For example, absence of books and quiet study space in the home. (2) Those who have been rejected by the school system “join forces” leading to gang formation. Due to negative characteristics of the disadvantaged home, lower-socioeconomic-class youth then to rely heavily on the peer group for guidance and on the streets as a meeting place. (3) Gangs provide an alternative status in order for the members to enjoy a form of acceptance and success. (4) The values of the delinquent gang are successfully and obviously resistant to those that are taught in the schools. He argued that the aversive school experiences result in delinquency because they deal with the attainment of middle class status. Thus, the children grow up with the idea that the social status is the only important goal in their lives and are not always ready to achieve the valued societal goals. Agnew and General Strain Theory In the late 1970s the strain theory has been much attacked, however, it ahs survived and in 1992 Robert Agnew has proposed an extended theory based on three measures of strain. He believed that the stain is caused by failure to achieve valued goals, removal of valued stimuli and presentation of negative stimuli. His primary focus was on the negative relationships with environment – the person is not perceived in the way he wants to be. Such negative states as anger pressure the individual into illegitimate way to attain the desired goal. The goal blockage prevents lower class people from reaching the valued goal (Agnew 1985). Agnew argued that the strain theory is central in explaining the crime. His theory is re-written at the social-psychological level to present the deviance as the result of the individual social environment. Unlike other theorists who have focused strain theory on juvenile delinquency, Agnew talks about adolescent criminality, partially because much more information is available for testing (surveys). Agnew stated that criminologists are not even aware that they use his theory in everyday practices: they pay close attention to magnitude, frequency and duration of the stressful and stain events. There are a number of factors affecting whether the person will react to strain in a criminal or conforming manner: temperament, intelligence, social support, criminal peers, and interpersonal skills. Richard Cloward, Lloyd Ohlin, and Differential Opportunity Theory: Cloward and Ohlin expand Merton’s idea of anomie schema by introducing the concept of differential illegitimate opportunity. According to Cloward and Ohlin, learning environment and opportunities are not equally distributed in the social class system. “A person’s class, gender, ethnicity, and neighborhood can make access to particular kinds of deviance or conformity easier or more difficult.” (Deutchmann, p. 251) Their theory is intended to explain individuals do not engage in delinquent roles without the knowledge of their peers, this is why the lower-socioeconomic-class youth have a higher delinquency status because they have more access and knowledge from their peers because of where they are growing up and what they have access to in their community. (Deutschmann, p.251). Cohen and Ohlin include three kinds of delinquent subcultures typically encountered among adolescent males in lower-class districts of larger urban centres. 1) Criminal behavior is an economic response to strain. Criminal gangs seek economic gain through crime. It emerges when there is visible, successful adult criminal activity in the neighborhood that allows boys to see a career path that will benefit them economically and socially within their gang. 2) When adult criminal behavior is lacking within a neighborhood or when the youth do not mix with the older criminals, the conflict for of gang behavior emerges. Violence between gangs becomes a way of asserting control in a disorganized environment. Also through violence a street gang member attempts to achieve reputation. 3) Some youths may be successful in neither school nor delinquency and is therefore labeled “double failures” that then tend to form retreatist gangs that are dominated by escapist activities such as drug use.( Deutschmann, p. 252) “The esoteric experience that is sought may involve alcohol, marijuana, hard drugs, sexual experimentation, dance music, or anything else that provides out of this world pleasure” (Cloward & Ohlin, 1960, p. 26). Empirical Evidence Through analyzing numerous studies on the topic of delinquency among lower-socioeconomic-classes many cases have concluded that there is a strong correlation between the two. One particular study, “The distribution of juvenile delinquency in the social class structure” by Albert J. Reiss, and Jr. Albert Lewis Rhodes, has strong evidence to support the correlation. Reiss and Rhodes took a large population sample of 9,239 white boys over the age of twelve that were registered in one of the public, private or parochial junior or senior high school of Davidson Tennessee Standard Metropolitan Area. This study found a considerable variation in the rate of court recorded delinquency among the classes. “The article provides a table holding information on the rates of delinquency for the type of offenders. This table suggests the probability of being classified as “a serious, petty or truancy offender is greater for the blue-collar than the white-collar boys” (Reiss & Rhodes, p.723). The study supports Cloward and Ohlin’s idea, “delinquency is behavior which is learned from other delinquents in a residential area where there is an established delinquent culture and organization.” (Reiss & Rhodes, p.724) “Lower class boys suffer status frustration in competition with middle class boys. The delinquent subcultures provide a solution to the problems when boys who are similarly frustrated interact together by conferring status on the frustrated boys” (Reiss & Rhodes, p.724). The article also covers the likelihood of becoming delinquent in a high or low delinquent areas. Research has proven the low status boys have the greatest chance of becoming a delinquent, although his chances are only one in one hundred in low delinquency area, they are one in five in high delinquency areas (Reiss & Rhodes, p.727). Through this study, what is most evident is delinquency tends to be greatest in lower status areas and higher delinquency rate areas. (Reiss & Rhodes, p.729). The author took 158 cases representing 2 per cent of the population sample, with a sizeable sampling error for the estimate. Several predictable findings emerged; 1) there is more frequent and serious variation in the lower than in the middle stratum when the self reports of delinquent deviation by boys are examined. 2) The career orientated delinquent is found only among lower class boys, 1.3% blue collar, and 0.0% white collar. 3) Peer orientated delinquency is the most common type of delinquency in all status levels, however it is still most common among blue collar boys. 4.5% blue collar, 1.3% white collar. 4) The major type of low status boy is a “conforming non-achiever” while the major type of middle class is a “conforming achiever”. 31.3% of blue collar boys are conforming non achievers while only 3.1% of white collar boys are. 12.0% of blue collar boys are conforming achievers while 29.3% of white collar boys are also conforming achievers. (Reiss & Rhodes, p.732). This study has supported the idea that delinquency is most common among lower-class boys, also supporting the idea of the classical strain theory. General Discussion All of the above theorists and empirical evidence prove that the delinquent and criminal behaviors are resulted from the improper emphasis on material wellbeing and unequal distribution of the opportunities among people. Poor people have fewer opportunities to succeed in life because when they are faced with the real life situations and have to choose whether to go study or to work in order to earn some money for food, the second alternative is more rational. Education will be paid back in several years and they need food today, not in several years. The theory of Merton is based on the means-ends deviance – the gap leads to criminal activities. The economic success emphasis across all social classes and the unequal distribution of opportunities is the most valid explanation of why crime is concentrated among the lower class – poor people have fewer opportunities for goal achievement. These people are the most vulnerable to strain. The crime caused by strain is not purposeless, it is not for fun. Cohen believed that the strain is based on class and school achievement. Unlike Merton, Cohen claimed that strain is not structural but interpersonal, caused at the level of small group interactions. In addition, as early as at school students create the inner structure dividing all members on losers and winners – those who lose the competition for status have the strong feeling of deprivation and strain, especially boys (Tomovic 1979). Cohen disagreed with Merton on working class delinquency – adults are less or more incapable of decreasing their aspirations and goals in life. Youth turns to crime as the result of the peer pressure and reaction formation – some boys might not be supportive of the common struggle to become rich and will not react so much to the lack of opportunity to earn wealth. Cloward has expanded the theory of Merton stating that the illegitimate opportunity is not only the criminal action, but is the expression of belief for subcultural understanding. In any case, the youth from poor district is aware about their inability to find a well paid job and perceive this system as unjust. There is the great disparity between lower class wants and means to fulfill these wants. For Agnew, the success goals are not connected in any way to social class and cultural variables are rather referred to in an effort to refocus the strain theory. Unlike other theorists, Agnew did not analyze the strain either from structural or from interpersonal standpoint. He focused on emotional beliefs and the role others play in expectations achievement. Trying to avoid harmful events impact the ability to maintain relationships and the perception of hostile environment leads to negative feelings or strain motivating the person to engage in crime. The strain theory is very important in understanding the crime, juvenile in particular, and the major point is not only about trying to understand what motivates people to engage in crime, but how to minimize the crime level and promote the equal distribution of opportunities. Direction for Future Research Today the strain theory attracts the attention of many theorists because the empirical evidence acquired from testing proves its empirical validity. Starting from this point, the strain theory might take several directions, particularly in criminology. Many studies on sociological phenomena of egoism and altruism are referred to as neo-functionalism. Merton has narrowed the anomie, but his work will always be remembers for such phrases as role model and self-fulfilling prophecy. Many of the administrative representatives make the remarks that prove the validity of the strain theory. For example, one of the senators has noted that the people responsible for serious national decisions such as going into war are paid more because they make the tough decision. This remark has a very interesting side – the senator has said that someone who gets paid less is not as smart as someone who gets paid more. However, the amount of earned money does not indicate how smart the person is, there are other factors to be considered, such as intuition, luck and availability as well as accessibility of opportunities (Aberle 1950/1967). Football players and singers earn millions not because they are very smart. It is the national problem that people judge others based on the money they make. Strain theory provides explanations of why delinquency occurs. The society continuously changes and progresses; it evolves a specialized division of labor and puts greater emphasis on individualization. The strain will not be resolved unless the society will develop the new methods of social relations and the new system of achieving the desired national goals will be equally distributed. The possible solutions are presented in the following final section. Policy Implication The government is the primary body that has the responsibility for reducing crime level in the country and the number of policy implications should be done to minimize the strain lower class youth has to cope with. Every single child knows that it is good to be rich and believes that the wealth is what everybody wants to have. When the child grows up, he realizes that not everything is so easy in life and money has to be earned. In order to earn a lot of money, it is necessary to study, in order to study it is necessary to pay tuition. It does not mean that the poor youth does not want to study, but rather that these young adults do not have the opportunity to study. Not all poor are responsible for their poverty, there are many people from lower class who are able and willing to work, but have no access to employment opportunities. The whole system of values needs to be changed to provide rewards for non-economic pursuits as well. The competition (for employment and other opportunities) will always exist, however, the lower class employees have very little chances to be promoted to higher positions. For example, if the company is looking for the regional sales manager, they would prefer the person who came in the nice suit and has graduated from college rather than someone in who has hardly graduated from the high school. It is logical that employer will benefit is the first candidate is chosen. Thus, the second candidate from the beginning has very few chances to be employed. Of course, the government cannot force employers to hire the people that ate not qualified. The roots of the problem are much deeper and the reform should start in school. The first step to take is to teach children than money and wealth are not the prerequisites of happiness. The society should be offered new values and new priorities in life. Second, the poor youth with desire to study should be given the chance to study, gain good knowledge, profession in order to have equal opportunities for employment. Delinquency is not the result of poverty but of the absence of opportunities to achieve the desired goals through legitimate ways. When people try to become someone but continuously fail, they feel distress and try to achieve the goals with the means that are available, in most cases illegitimate. The government should intrude and promote the equal distribution of opportunities. References Aberle, D., Cohen, A., Davis, K, Levy, M., & Sutton, F. (1950/1967). “The Functional Prerequisites of a Society”, Pp. 317-331 in N. Demerath and R. Peterson (eds.) System, Change and Conflict. NY: Free Press. Agnew, R. (1985). A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency. Social Forces, 64, (1), 151. Bernard, T. (1984). Control Criticisms of Strain Theories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 21, 353 - 72. Calhoun, C., Light, D., & Keller, S. (1989). Sociology (5th. ed.). Alfred A. Knopf: New York. Leighninger, L., & Popple, Phillip R. (1996). Social Work, Social Welfare, and American Society (3rd. ed.). Allyn and Bacon: Needham Heights, MA. Reiss, A.J. & Rhodes, A.L. (1961). The Distribution of Juvenile Delinquency in the Social Class Structure. American Sociological Review, 26, (5), 720-732. Tomovic, V.A. (1979). Definitions in Sociology: Convergence, Conflict and Alternative Vocabularies. Diliton Publications, Inc.: St. Catherines, Ontario. Deutchmann Cloward & Ohlin Read More