Functionalism and sport in relation to sport - Essay Example

Functionalism and Sport- Provide a Critical Overview of this in Relation to Sport Introduction The relationship between sports and society, also referred to as sports sociology, has been studied since historical times. Through sports sociology, scholars have been able to carry out analyses of the influences of sports on cultures, values, norms, practices, principles as well as the influences of these aspects of life on sports. Sports sociology also studies that influences among sports, religion, race, gender, media, politics, economics and youth. Furthermore, sociology of sports explores the relationship among sports, social inequality and social mobility. A key area of focus on sports sociology is the relationship between sports and gender (Heywood & Shari, 2003). In this context, the gender inequalities in sports as well as gender roles are the areas of concern for scholars and sociologists (Barnes, 1995). In this topic, gender roles and inequalities in current and historical times are studied with the aim of charting the way forward to reverse unwanted trends and promote gender equality and equity in sports. Consequent to the efforts of stakeholders in addressing gender issues in sports, tremendous change in women’s contribution and participation in sports. The other area of focus in sports sociology is sports and media, in which it has been established that sports viewership seems to lean towards men than women. In addition, more men’s sports are viewed live on television and reported on print and electronic media than women’s sports (Urry, 2000). These men’s sports include hockey, baseball, professional wrestling, basketball, football and boxing while the women’s sports that are commonly covered in media are gymnastics, figure skating, skiing, and diving (Eitzen et al., 2003). Men’s sports are also covered more often than women’s sports both in print and on television (Heywood & Shari, 2003). Sports’ association with gender identity is the other aspect of sports studied in sports sociology. Notably, sports reinforce gender-specific roles right in childhood with girls being treated rather more harshly than boys in sports such as T-ball (Heywood & Shari, 2003). Several theoretical perspectives are used to view and study sports to promote the understanding of the roles of sports in society and sports’ interactions with cultural, religious, political, economic and social aspects of life. These theoretical perspectives on sports include but are not limited to the feminist, functionalist, conflict and instructionist perspectives (Slattery, 1993).. This paper discusses the concept of sports and functionalism, which many sports and sociology scholars concur, is the most relevant and effective theoretical approach to understanding and discussing sports (Turner & Stets, 2005). Functionalist perspective of sports refers to the view of the relationship between sport and politics, which suggests that sports are used to promote common values considered essential for the integration and development of a society and maintenance of social order. Theoretical Perspectives on Sport Sports are a much part of life like any other social, political, cultural and economic activities. In fact, in modern times, people not only discuss sports in social gatherings or situations but sports have become sources of livelihood for quite many people. Hence, sports occupy a lot of space and time in modern society. Sports affect those who participate in games and other activities directly while affecting others such as fans and the general public indirectly. Notably, sports generate a lot of money just as they consume resources (Craib, 1992). Consequent to the great role and influence sports have in society, sports are viewed and analysed from different perspectives or schools of thought or theoretical perspectives (Jay & Coakley, 2005). Some of these theoretical perspectives include the functional, the conflict, the instructionist and the feminist views. In the conflict perspective, sport is believed to contribute to and reflect the divisions in society. In this regard, sports are just forms of businesses with profit margins bigger than that of health and safety. Second, the conflict theory postulates that sport has been used to promote false that only hard work results in success while failure is attributed to individual weaknesses instead of societal injustices and systems (Macionis, 2010). The conflict theory also has the perception that the resources used in sports could be channeled to the more serious public issues such as safety, security and health. The conflict theory also postulates that sports have been used to promote segregation and other forms of equity and equality. For instance, in the USA, Black Americans and Latinos are underrepresented in the coaching and management levels in the sporting fraternity. Thus, through sports, the subordinate roles of the marginalized continue to be perpetuated in sports. On the other hand, the feminist view of sports asserts that sports are used to reinforce the gender or sex roles of males and females in society. For example, the need to perform in sports has propelled some men to use steroids. Greatly affected by steroid use are baseball players and body builders. The other feminist effect of sports is excessive dieting, for figure skaters and gymnasts. Gender expectations have also seen women athletes being encouraged to join games associated with passiveness and gentleness (Craib, 1992). Hence, most women do not participate in more physically or aggressively competitive sports. Consequently, it has become more difficult for women to join sports that are traditionally associated with and dominated by men. The feminist perception also laments that although female athletes are increasingly earning higher incomes, their rates still trail the earnings of their male counterparts (Craib, 1992). The third common theoretical approach to sport is instructionist, which focuses on how social interactions or behaviour, values and norms are shaped by sports. For instance, instructionists believe that sports encourage interactions among children, parents, teachers, learners, leaders, citizens and friends. Sports also increase networking among friends and people across social, political and economic classes in society. However, social status has been noted to affect friendships and relationships so that players, referees, managers, trainers and coaches have unique or different relationships (Dunleavy et al., 1992). The third theoretical perspective is functionalist, which takes the position that sports make several contributions to society and social stability. In fact, in the postulations of the functionalist theory, sport is comparable to a religion since it uses or reinforces standards, principles, norms or values (Lenski, 2005). Through sports, people, especially the youth, have embraced cultures of competition and patriotism besides becoming physically and psychologically fit. Through sports, players and fans or spectators have a safety valve through which they release tension, stress or aggressive energy in a manner that is socially accepted (Dyck, 2000). Importantly, sports also promote cohesion as people from all walks of life assemble at sports venues to play and cheer their teams. Globalization has also grown due to sports as international players and teams meet to compete in evens such as the FIFA World Cup, Olympic Games and IAAF. Notwithstanding the theoretical perspective used in discussing sports, it is clear from the brief review of the theories that sports are more than just the games or recreation involved (Dyck, 2000). Functionalism and Sports At the forefront in developing and growing the theory of functionalism were scholars of great renown such as Emile Durkheim, Parsons, Merton and Goffman, who had quite a positive view of life and society. A key focus of these scholars, which appears in their theories, is the need for people to work together and connect and work with one another. Durkheim’s functionalism is based on the analogy of the human body in which body organs and compared with societal agents such as families, governments, neighbourhoods and institutions (Holmwood, 2005). The core idea behind functionalism is that if one agent or component fails, the functioning or completeness of a system fails. There are also consequences for every breakdown in a system such as an organism’s body or society. In society, if an agent such as the family or the government fails, there is poised to be a collapse or a malfunction of some sort. (Elster, 1990). Functionalism is also based on the postulation that like an organism, society adapts, grows, develops and changes with time. These changes and growth are also reported in the sports world where individuals, teams and sporting disciplines grow and develop throughout periods. According to functionalism theorists, society has structures, which are important in its existence and functionality (Elster, 1990). Through these structures, individuals, groups and institutions are able to organize and make decisions to help in the achievement of goals. The same postulations apply in sports where every discipline has its structures and systems through which objectives and roles are defined and achieved (Elster, 1990). For example, in football, players are arranged in the field, each at his or her position, with the aim of scoring past their opponents’ goal. Just like in basket ball in which a goal shooter’s aim and role is to score hoops for the team. In addition, every sport has rules, regulations and mechanisms of reaching consensus on what is good for the sport and the teams and the realization of their goals. The other key functionality factors in sports are team cohesion and being united, which are key factors of successful sports and teams. Functionalism also emphasises social integration, which is achieved the moment a person decides to join as sports team as a player, manager, coach, team physician or as a supporter (Fish, 2005). The functionalist perspective also lists several ideals of sports. First, functionalists believe that sports have the power to transform individuals, communities, nations and the world. Hence, functionalists are seen to consider the sport-society relationship quite useful in creating a strong social fabric, making sports valuable social institution that works in the interest and benefit of society as well as individuals (Giulianotti, 2004). Among the weaknesses of the functionalist perspective towards sports are that it does not acknowledge that sports are social constructions and the theoretical perspective overstates the positive consequences of sport while it largely ignores the fact that sport serves the needs of some people more than others (Elster, 1990). According to scholars such as Durkheim’s and Parson’s, sports, just like gender and race help people in society to satisfy specific social need and functions, which could be cultural or structural. Hence, sportsmen and other professionals in the sports fraternity play their roles because such roles are functional for society (Fish, 2005). Sport is thus one of the many fixed roles established in society. Hence, sportsmen just slide into their sports roles just like other people take up their roles (Fish, 2005). Therefore, sportsmen undertake their duties without which the society would not be the same. Consequently, people should appreciate the role of sports in the functioning of society and ensure that the equilibrium is maintained. Structural functionalism is a branch of sociological theory that explains societal functioning on the basis of the interactions among the elements and institutions of society such as religion, sports, government, law and education among others. Sport is thus one of the social systems that are used to meet the collective social needs, especially survival and development. Sports are thus some of the activities that need to be carried out for the fulfillment of societal needs. According to this sub branch of functionalism, people produce necessary goods and services in various institutions and roles that correlate with the norms of the society (Bourricaud, 2010). According to the principles of structural functionalism, sports or games are composed of groups and institutions, which are characterised by cohesion, definite cultures, norms, values, beliefs and standards. Although some structural functionalists such Robert K. Merton opine that functionalism is more about the more established institutions and aspects of society such as government or religions, recent structural functionalism perspectives and thinking include social institutions such as religious denominations and sports clubs (Sanderson, 1999). The other key feature of functionalism observed is a society that constantly strives to remain at equilibrium. In other words, this theory concurs with the general belief and assertion that there is an inherent drive among societies for coherence and togetherness. Sports thus come in handy in the realization of this coherence (Turner, 1995). Merton also asserts that societies move towards equilibrium through social structures such as sports and sports clubs and participation and not through dictatorial laws and leaders. Sports thus promote social cohesion, which refers to the bonds by which people are brought together. Through positive membership attitudes and practices, sports groups have achieved cohesiveness in the social setting. This social cohesion has been achieved not only at the individual but also at the group level. Included in the individual-level cohesion are individual desire and intention to be part of a group, attitudes and beliefs towards the group, intention to sever, weaken, maintain or strengthen membership and participation in group activities (Gingrich, 1999). A key principle of functionalism that is apparent in sports is interdependence. Interdependence refers to the aspect of society, which promotes the sharing of a common set of principles among institutions, organizations, and individuals. Undoubtedly, all these entities are dependent on each other to ensure social equilibrium exists in society. Social equilibrium refers to the internal and external balance in a society (Gingrich, 1999). Whereas disturbances in the social structure could upset the social equilibrium, society will ultimately return to a balanced, orderly state due to changes that happen rather slowly. Like Durkheim, Talcott Parsons emphasised the problem of and need for order in society. The main issue that comes up from both scholars is what chaos would be observed in society if everyone was to pursue self-interests without regards for others. The scholars are convinced that by nature, people cooperate at home, work and at social functions to achieve social integration. This cooperation stems from societal norms, values and social actors. In other words, people are propelled to by their closely held and guarded values as well as the values and norms of people around them, which orient and constrain their actions, hence form the basis of social order (Gingrich, 1999). Evidently, sports has values and norms, which emphasise the importance of respecting others’ norms and values, resulting in social order in sports, which have their rules, regulations and penalties for breaches (Nolan & Lenski, 2004). The other sports-related functionalism concepts shared and promoted by Parsons and Durkheim are order, solidarity, integration, sex roles and family roles. Parsons’ emphasis that social phenomena are understood through the terms of an individual meaning as well as at the level of collective action by group actors is quite relevant to the sporting arena (Gingrich, 1999). Sport as an Action System Max Webber and Parsons enlisted several characteristics of action systems, which are easily identifiable in sports. A common notion by Webber and Parsons was that social actions have meanings to individuals besides emphasizing accountability for others and being goal-oriented. All these are characteristics of sports. Sports are also categorised under the four types of social action; instrumentally-rational, value-rational, affective and traditional social actions (Giulianotti, 2005). According to Parsons, the core features of social actions are voluntarism, subjectivity and governance by social norms. Just like other social actions, membership to sports and sports club is voluntary (Giulianotti, 2004). However, entrance and participation could be governed by a set of choices and circumstances prevailing in a situation or context. Generally, like other social actors, sportsmen acts voluntary and have choices with relations to the chosen course of action. Sport is also a subjective social action as the social actor has an internal orientation. In other terms, sport actions bear a lot of meaning for the actors who also have an obligation to consider others’ interests while pursuing personal preferences and goals. Sports, as social actions, are also regulated by social norms, cultural values and social order of the context and immediate surroundings. In sports, the actors have goals; choose among alternatives and to act within the context of norms and values (Maio, 2010). Sports also function within the confines of a social system within which sporting actions help in the establishment, definition and maintenance of the social system. Functional System Problems of Sport Similar to other social systems, sporty is bedeviled by many needs and problems, which must be eliminated or reduced to ensure sports thrive and survive. The four features or needs of sport that have to be addressed for the disciplines to survive and continue operating are generally categorised into four groups (Guttmann, 2004). Whereas the some of these needs are related to survival and the continued operations of sports, others are related to the regulation of sports. The functional needs are adaptation, goal or objective attainment, integration and latency or maintenance pattern. With reference to adaption, sport, as a system, exists in a given environment. Sport is thus required to adapt to this environment to operate and survive (Guttmann, 2004). On the other hand, sports also have the potential of affecting the immediate surroundings. To survive and operate, sport requires the mobilization of resources, to conduct the activities by which goals are to be achieved. At the family or household level, adaptation entails sports persons obtaining economic resources such as income to support their family while at the broader social systems levels, the economic status and system ought to favour the operation, growth, change and the survival of sport (Guttmann, 1994). On goal or objective attainment, sport has its purposes, which are well defined and complete with the mechanisms and means by which these goals are to be achieved. The political and governance atmosphere and machinery are quite critical in the attainment of sports’ goals. Importantly, sporting objectives must be in line with the larger societal goals. The third need or problem of sport as a social system is integration, which refers to the processes or means by which people socially interact with one another (Guttmann, 2004). According to Parsons, people need to coordinate, adjust, and regulate relationships among themselves, a factor that is quite integral to sports for functionality and survival. In sport, as people and processes function, there are tensions, strains and conflicts that occur, which interfere with the relationships among individuals and teams. It is of the essence that mechanisms are developed to deal with these strains, tensions and conflicts so that they are diffused or resolved (Guttmann, 2004). Conclusion Sport is one of the social systems that have emerged as a strong social force in modern times. Because of its influence on the social, political, cultural and social wellbeing and stability in society, sport has attracted the attention of sociologists since historical times. Among the renowned sociologists to study sport sociology are Emile Durkheim, Goffman, Max Webber and Talcott Parsons. Among the theoretical perspectives by which sport has been viewed are feminist, instructionist, conflict and functionalism perspectives. Functionalism, which emphasises the role of sport in societal interactions, has emerged as the most popular theoretical perspective on sport since it highlights the roles and effects of sport on the daily lives and interactions in societies. Functionalism based on the notion that like an organism, sport adapts, grows, develops and changes over time. These changes and growth are reported in sports when individuals, teams and sporting disciplines grow and develop. In the functionalist view, society has structures, which are vital for their existence and functions and through these structures, individuals, groups and institutions organize and make decisions to help them accomplish objectives. References Barnes, B. (1995) The elements of social theory. London: UCL Press. Bourricaud, F. (2010) The sociology of Talcott Parsons. Chicago University Press. 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