Impact of the Culture of Poverty - Essay Example

Impact of the Culture of Poverty Introduction According to Lewis (1961: xxiv), culture is defined as “a design for living which is passed down from generation to generation”. Poverty is not simply a condition of economic deprivation; it has an inherent structure, rationale, and defense mechanisms with which the poor are able to continue their life. That is, poverty is a stable, persistent way of life that is passed down along family lines through the generations. This culture of poverty constitutes unique processes, with distinctive social and psychological consequences for its members. The black underclass are the abjectly impoverished African Americans who are marginalized and excluded from mainstream America. The black underclass are defined not so much by poverty or race, as their behavior consisting of chronic lawlessness, drug use, unwed parenthood, unemployment, welfare dependency, and school failure. Underclass essentially describes a cultural condition and a way of life (Jaynes & Williams, 1989). The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the “culture of poverty” exists within the black underclass, and whether it explains the cultural differences between the black underclass and white middle-class Americans, identified by scholars such as Anderson, Massey and Denton. Discussion The Black Underclass: The Culture of Poverty or the Culture of Segregation? The thesis of the culture of poverty can be stated as a culture that is shared by people at the very bottom of the class ladder, marginal people who are not integrated into national institutions such as schools, political parties, hospitals, and others because they do not trust them and also are ineligible or cannot afford to use them. Irrespective of how hard working poor people may be, the culture of poverty or the style of living into which they are socialized by parents, kin and community, prevents them from rising above their impoverished condition (Best, 2005). The black underclass who are victims of segregation, are excluded from civil society on account of extreme deprivation caused by poverty or lack of employment. It is an oppositional culture to mainstream behavior and attitudes manifested in disproportionately high levels of “voluntary joblessness, welfare dependency, unwed parenting, juvenile delinquency, and crime generally” (Braham & Janes, 2002: 370). The social isolation to which blacks are subjected to due to their systematic residential segregation, guarantees their economic isolation as well, due to lack of a social network or contact with the outside world, crucial for finding employment. “This economic isolation is cumulative and self-perpetuating” (Massey & Denton 1, 1993: 162), further undermining their chances to develop connections with other people and institutions. The self-defeating attitudes and behavior of blacks which form the basis of the “culture of poverty” theory, are further explained by Auletta (1982) that residence in extreme poverty areas, social structure, behavior and attitudes are interrelated. It is also widely believed that the underclass shares in a distinctive subculture of cynicism, resignation and despair which is known as the “culture of fatalism” similar to the “culture of poverty”. The “dependency culture” refers to underclass blacks receiving state service such as welfare, based on long-term unemployment which is detrimental to self-sufficiency and autonomy (Braham & Janes, 2002). Frequently, whites conclude from underclass black culture of deprivation, crime, and struggle that African Americans suffer from a kind of “cultural defect” or that they are “culturally disadvantaged”. That is, they blame the victims of segregation rather than the social system that created the oppositional culture of the underclass blacks, in the first place. It is not a self-perpetuating “culture of poverty” that undermines black progress in the wider society. On the other hand, it is a structurally created and sustained framework of “culture of segregation” that is detrimental to black educational and socio-economic progress (Massey & Denton 1., 1993). Further, though the culture of segregation helps underclass blacks to adapt to the harsh realities of ghetto life, “the invisible walls of a segregated society are not only damaging but protective in a debilitating way” (Clark, 1965: 11). It intensifies the difficulties and conflict in venturing out into a repressive, frightening white world to become a part of an integrated society. Moreover, the negative aspects of the ghetto community pervade the life of the members, and perpetuate themselves through increasing ugliness, isolation and deterioration. From an early age, inner-city blacks prepare for inequality, to face the personally destructive effects of racism, through special socialization methods (Braham & Janes, 2002). Segregation Causes Cultural Differences Between Black Underclass and Mainstream America An inner-city community is defined as one of two orientations: “decent” or “street”. The former is commitment to middle-class values of hard work, academic accomplishment, contribution to society, and compliance to law. “Street” means a culture whose norms frequently oppose those of mainstream white middle-class society. Central to the street code is the issue of being treated “right” or with respect, which can lead to physical confrontations. The street code is used because, based on a profound sense of alienation from mainstream society, there is a lack of faith in the police or the judicial system for personal safety. “Exacerbated by the proliferation of drugs and the easy access to guns, this volatile situation results in the ability of the street-oriented minority to dominate the public spaces” (Anderson, 1996: 92). In urban America, there is a strong link between the unequalled degree of black segregation with the persistent poverty that crushes them. During the first half of the twentieth century the black ghetto was created by whites for the purpose of isolating growing urban black populations. Segregation continues to be perpetuated inspite of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 through a combination of several factors such as institutional practices, governmental policies and individual actions (Massey & Denton, 2. 1993). In some urban areas the degree of black segregation may be very high, resulting in ‘hypersegregation’.This inevitably leads to the creation of the black underclass during economically low periods. Extreme segregation further deterioration in the harsh environment and racial isolation faced by the black underclass, leading to attitudes, behaviors and practices causing further marginalization, thus sabotaging the blacks’ chances of success in mainstream American society (Massey & Denton, 2. 1993). On the other hand, some commentators (Wilson 1978; Kushnick & Jennings, 1999) emphasize the importance of class over race, and claim that the life chances of individual blacks pertained to their class position based on their economic condition, rather than on discrimination or segregation. Wilson (1987) states that endemic unemployment and underemployment are the core factors that cause the low conditions among the black underclass. Macroeconomic policies to promote growth, generate jobs, improve welfare and social services were called for by Wilson (1987). However, the growth of liberal social policies has increased not alleviated ghetto-specific cultural problems and inner-city social dislocations. Some examples are: serious rise of inner-city crime due to decreased sanctions against aberrant behavior arising from liberal changes in the criminal justice system, and deteriorating plight of the underclass related to increased demand for highly qualified minority members as a result of affirmative actions. Bridge & Watson (2002) reiterate that federal programs are harmful to the poor, with increased rates of joblessness, crime, welfare dependency, and unwed parenthood. Thus, it is clear that social policies should be aimed not at equal treatment, but should be ghetto-specific, towards social integration and removal of segregation. This will help to some extent in reducing cultural differences between the black underclass and mainstream America. In most urban areas of the United States, both poor blacks and poor whites experience extremely inferior neighborhood environments. However, with increased income, whites are able to leave negative residential conditions and relocate for better life prospects. Contrastingly, blacks remain bogged down in unfavorable neighborhood environments irrespective of increased income, due to the discrimination that they face at all levels. That is, high incomes do not buy blacks entry to residential circumstances that can serve as springboards for future socio-economic mobility, or better school environments conducive to later academic success for their children. Thus, cultural differences persist even between middle-class African Americans and middle-class white Americans (Albelda et al, 1997). Conclusion This paper has highlighted the conditions of the black underclass living in segregated ghettoes due to marginalization and racism practised by the larger society. The “culture of poverty” attributes the low socio-economic conditions of the black underclass to socialization by parents and community generation after generation, thus preventing them from progressing beyond their impoverished conditions. However, it was found that such a culture of poverty that perpetuates impoverishment exists only to a small extent among the black underclass. The main factors identified by various scholars as the root cause of the black underclass’s poverty and antisocial activities are: segregation, discrimination, inequality and racism practised at all levels and in all dimensions. Thus, it is concluded that segregation that keeps the black underclass poor and restricted within their ghettoes, lead to the cultural differences in life-style, behavior and attitudes that exist between the black underclass and the white middle-class. Only with the complete erasure of segregation and discrimination can there be a move towards closing the cultural divide, and integration of the black underclass into mainstream American society. References Albelda, R.P., Drago, R.W. & Shulman, S. (1997). Unlevel playing fields. The United States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies. Anderson, E. (1996). “The code of the streets”. In M. Meade & M.G. Christopher (Eds.). Crossroads. The United States of America: Open Court Publishing. pp.91-98. Auletta, K. (1982). The underclass. New York: Random House. Best, S. (2005). Understanding social divisions. California: Sage Publications. Braham, P. & Janes, L. (2002). Social differences and divisions. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. Bridge, G. & Watson, S. (2002). The Blackwell city reader. The United States of America: Blackwell Publishing. Clark, K.B. (1965). Dark ghetto: dilemmas of social power. New York: Harper and Row. Jaynes, G.D. & Williams, R.M. (1989). A common destiny. Washington: National Academy Press. Kushnick, L. & Jennings, J. (1999). A new introduction to poverty. New York: New York University Press. Lewis, O. (1961). The children of Sanchez: autobiography of a Mexican family. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Massey, D.S. & Denton, N.A. 1. (1993). “The perpetuation of the underclass”. In D.S. Massey & N.A. Denton. American apartheid: segregation and the making of the underclass. The United States of America: Harvard University Press. pp. 148-185. Massey, D.S. & Denton, N.A. 2. (1993). American apartheid: segregation and the making of the underclass. The United States of America: Harvard University Press. Wilson, W.J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Wilson, W.J. (1978). The declining significance of race: blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read More