The Benefits of Tourism of Indigenous Communities - Assignment Example

Exam questions How does Indigenous Cultural Tourism ‘fit’ within the concept of sustainable development? Sustainable development is essential forthe survival of indigenous cultural tourism as sustainable development models are necessary for indigenous tourism to maintain its authenticity and flourish. The Brundtland Report (p. 4) defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (slide 7, Alan Briggs). Sustainable tourism aims at the social and cultural well being of local residents through the protection of environmental resources, natural habitats and authentic indigenous products while indigenous tourism may cease to exist once this authenticity. 2. Explain the positive and negative connotations of the term commoditization in Indigenous Tourism settings Commoditization takes place at one stage or another in the life-cycle of every tourist destination. The positive connotation of commoditization is that it contributes to economic stability and improved living standards for the natives. On the other hand, commercialization, expropriation, and commoditization of indigenous culture negate locals’ and tourists’ authentic cultural experiences (slide 39, Alan Briggs). Authenticity lies at the core of indigenous tourism; contrived cultural products, tourist oriented commercial craftworks, and commercialized tourist services may adversely affect tourists’ quest for authenticity and will negate them of genuine indigenous tourism experiences. For Cohen, commoditization makes indigenous cultural experiences and cultural products meaningless; destroys the authenticity of local cultural products and human relations; and poses great threat to tourist’s genuine desire for authentic experiences (Cohen, 1988, p. 372). It is evident that tourists would eventually lose their interest on indigenous tourism once its authentic dimensions are lost in pursuit of commoditization. 3. Debate the notions of Indigenous Tourism as empowerment (Cultural Control) or neo colonialism It has been argued that indigenous tourism contributes to community empowerment and poverty alleviation of various indigenous groups. Tourism empowers indigenous communities socially and economically and this provides them a unique opportunity to celebrate and propagate their unique cultural diversity. On the other hand, there are others who hold that indigenous tourism is controlled and manipulated by powers of neo-colonialism. Neo-colonialism refers to the reproduction of colonial power today and it means “the use of economic, political, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies” (slide 9, lecture 5 & side 10, lecture 7). It is due to the interventions of neo-colonial powers that indigenous tourism often follows western models of tourism development. 4. Discuss the mission and aims of the World Heritage Convention, with emphasis on its effect on indigenous tourism The mission of World Heritage Convention has great implications for indigenous tourism. World Heritage Convention regards heritage as a gift from the past to the future; its mission consists of protecting natural and cultural heritage; including sites on the World Heritage List; encouraging states to conserve their World Heritage sites; providing emergency assistance to heritage sites; encouraging and ensuring participation of local population; and ensuring international cooperation to preserve world’s cultural and natural heritages (Mission Statement, UNESCO World Heritage Centre). It is thus clear that World Heritage Convention offers the best possible support for indigenous people to preserve and conserve their cultural diversity and natural heritage. The provisions guaranteed by the World Heritage Convention (such as protecting natural and cultural heritage and ensuring participation of local population) are beneficial for indigenous tourism and they go in harmony with the demands of indigenous people. 5. Explore and discuss the rights arising from Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights and provide examples of a range of measures that could be implemented in order to support these rights in Indigenous Tourism Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property Rights (ICIPR) are essential for different Indigenous Australian groups to maintain and protect their cultural heritage. ICIPR offers indigenous people to preserve their heritage which comprises of all objects, sites and knowledge that has been transmitted to them from generation to generation (slide 7, lecture 10). The rights indigenous people consist of the rights to own and control Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property (ICIP), the right to control commercial use of ICIP while benefiting from authorised use of ICIP, the right to protect sacred and significant sites, the right to own and control management of certain land, the right to prevent derogatory, offensive and fallacious uses of ICIP, the right to have a say in the preservation of heritage, and the right to control use of traditional knowledge (slide 11, lecture 10). Janke (2008, p. 65), in this respect, points out that Indigenous people need the right “to preserve, care for, protect, manage and control Indigenous cultural objects, Indigenous ancestral remains and Indigenous cultural resources” so as to continue practicing their cultures. This preoccupation to protect indigenous authenticity and quality is evident in establishing a ‘stamp of approval’ or ‘certification of authenticity’ over crafts and artwork marketed by aboriginal communities (Butler & Hinch, 2007, p. 53). Today Indigenous Authentification Systems consist of the National Indigenous Authenticity Trademark system that ensures the authenticity of produced arts and cultural products, helps consumers identify genuine products, and encourages retailers to stock only genuine products (slide 16, lecture 10). 6. Define the terms emic and etic in the context of cross cultural tourism research. Highlight your definition with examples from a group presentation other than your own Tourism professionals and researchers make use of two significant cross cultural research methods-the emic approach and the etic approach. Emic approach in tourism takes into account the perspective of the participant (tourist) and tries to understand how individual tourists see the world, tourist settings, and value their experiences (Pearce, 2005, p. 2-3). The etic approach is more systematic wherein the researcher remains as an observer and outsider. The duty of the researcher is to classify and describe tourists’ behaviour in an objective way (Pearce, 2005, p. 3). It can therefore be stated that the etic method is scientific in approach whereas the emic approach is quite humanistic (slide 20, lecture 2). While etic concepts and ideas common across all cultures emic concepts are culture-specific and vary from tourist destination to another (slide 23, lecture 2). Etic concepts are culture-general and address such issues as the socialization of children, conflict resolution, and the need to offer sustenance (Berno, 1996, p. 378; slide 24, lecture 2). On the other hand, emic concepts deal with culture-specific issues that throw light on the specific ways children get socialized into various cultures, the specific methods of providing sustenance and the culturally appropriate means of solving conflicts (Berno, 1996, p. 378; slide 25, lecture 2). The etic research is rigorous and scientific while the emic research “views cultures and people on their own terms” (slide 18, lecture 2). 7. The divergence and concurrence of legislative and legitimate power are important concepts in the understanding of indigenous tourism as a tool for empowerment. Using examples from the text and/or Reader show how issues surrounding these concepts are being addressed in the development of indigenous cultural tourism The divergence and concurrence of legislative and legitimate power are essential for the development of indigenous tourism. While legislative power is imposed by the dominant culture, legitimate power is embedded in traditional practices (slide 5, lecture 7). It can thus be seen that the exercise of legitimate power caters to the interests of the indigenous people and reinforces their role in the governance of indigenous tourism. For instance, one finds the authors emphasising on the need to ensure local participation in the Annapurna region by granting greater decision-making power to the local communities (Butler & Hinch, 2007, p. 245). On the other hand, legislative power is required to make indigenous tourism attractive and appealing to the dominant culture. Therefore, it is imperative to have a balance in the exercise of both types of powers. While legislative power is essential to attract the dominant groups to indigenous tourism the exercise of legitimate power is needed to preserve authenticity and cultural diversity. 8. Discuss the abstract concept of authenticity and illustrate the discussion with Authenticity in tourism refers to the genuineness and uniqueness of traditional culture in terms of authentic experiences and authenticity of toured objects (Wang, 1999; side 33, Alan Briggs). Aboriginal bark paintings, musical instruments, and artifacts are characterized by their uniqueness, originality and authenticity. It has been observed that tourists seek authenticity and are driven by the desire to have different experiences (slide 18 & 20, Alan Briggs). On the other hand, there are also researchers who stress on the fake and inauthentic nature of tourist setting (slide 19, Alan Briggs). One can find four types of tourists-recreational, diversionary, existential and experimental of whom the latter two types value authentic experiences in tourism. Experiential tourists who are unable to lead an authentic life search for meaning and authentic experiences in the life of others; they are attracted by the strangeness and novelty of tourist places and tend to seek alternative life styles (slide 28, Alan Briggs). Similarly, tourism for existential tourists is ‘a journey from the meaningless to the authentic lifestyle’ (slide 29, Alan Briggs). It can therefore be stated that authenticity lies at the core of indigenous tourism and therefore loss of authenticity due to commoditization may adversely affect indigenous tourism. 9. Discuss the importance of recognizing the formal and informal employment sectors that may arise through tourism development. Place these sectors in the context of indigenous tourism and neo-colonialism or empowerment. Effective management of tourism enterprises requires both formal and informal employment sectors. Formal employment sectors possess legal norms and policies and they seek to increase the income and standard of living, social status and quality of life, and empower youth and women through a large amount of employment opportunities (slide 15, lecture 7). On the other hand, the informal employment sector is seasonal and is characterized by low wages, lower skills, migrant workers and social stress, and traditional jobs (slide 15, lecture 7). While employment in the informal sector may contribute to the self-empowerment of indigenous people one can find the strong control of forces of neo-colonialism in the formal sector. 10. How can the benefits of tourism contribute to the wider well-being of indigenous communities? Indigenous tourism benefits indigenous communities as it facilitates cross-cultural interaction and mutual understanding between indigenous and non-indigenous people. Tourism contributes to the community wellness of indigenous people as it develops the physical and spiritual environment of the natives while reinstating their sense of collective community action through a commonly shared cultural esteem, pride and identity (slide 40, lecture 7). Tourism development benefits both the tourists and the indigenous people. From an indigenous perspective tourism has the potential for cultural friction and it yields them social and economic gains, diminishes their sense of isolation, leads to overdevelopment and urbanization, and enable them to compete with other land uses (slide 21, lecture 8). Butler and Hinch (2007, p. 3) rightly point out that tourism offers indigenous people a unique opportunity to address many of their ‘economic, social and cultural challenges.’ For instance, the Australian Indigenous heritage and tourism ventures have benefited a number of stakeholders including various commercial tour enterprises, state, federal and aboriginal tourism agencies, hospitality industry, cultural organizations, and Aboriginal land councils. 11. What changes might tourism bring to local indigenous communities, particularly with respect to time spent in their traditional ways of life? The lives of local indigenous communities are closely linked to their sense of belonging to land and people, strong sense of territory and heritage, traditions, and cultural landscapes (slide 5, lecture 8). Many hold that tourism exploits indigenous communities as the Western based developmental models seek commoditize indigenous culture and products (slide 22, lecture 8). There is great disparity between the western philosophy and indigenous approach towards the goals of tourism development. While Western philosophy holds that the natural environment is a resource for use the indigenous approach seeks for environmental protection of resources as their lives are inseparable from nature (slide 10, Alan Briggs). Tourism has both direct and indirect impacts on indigenous communities. The indirect impacts consist of economic, environmental, socio-cultural political changes (slide 11, Alan Briggs). The direct impacts occur during immediate encounters between tourism and people; increased tourist activities in the region are likely to diminish the indigenous communities’ time spent in their traditional ways of life. As Butler’s destination life-cycle model shows the traditional ways of life practiced by the indigenous people are likely to be influenced by the dominant culture as tourism flourishes in the region. As a result, the indigenous people may spend more of time in tourist activities which may adversely affect the time spent in their traditional ways of life. However, the indigenous people may benefit in terms of social and economic well-being. 12. Discuss the following quote (Butler and Hinch, 2007, p138) “… the government’s initiatives of ecotourism and poverty-alleviation can be seen as implicitly imposing external cultural ideals onto indigenous societies, essentially requiring them to adjust to accommodate the needs and expectations of foreigners in order to reap the benefits of tourism.” The quotation throws light on the economically centred government initiatives and policies on tourism development. The quotation makes it clear that ‘government’s initiatives of ecotourism and poverty-alleviation’ often force the indigenous communities to shed their ideals ‘to accommodate the needs and expectations of foreigners’ (Butler and Hinch, 2007, p. 138). Very often, the indigenous communities are forced to compromise their cultural ideals and authenticity to accommodate the needs and expectations of foreigners. Indigenous Tourism has proved to be a significant contributor to the economic stability and this prompts governments to initiate policies and initiatives that please foreign tourists. Very often, such initiatives are undertaken in the name of ecotourism or poverty-alleviation. 13. Provide a definition of the acronym, K-CREDIT K-CREDIT stands for Knowledge Creation, Retention, Exchange, Devolution, Interpretation and Treatment (Nadkarni, 2008, p.456). The acronym and its meaning are elaborately discussed in the essay part. 14. Show some Indigenous Tourism approaches that support empowerment of the Indigenous culture. Four broad approaches are employed in tourism-modernization, dependency, neo-classical, and alternative development. Modernization promotes large scale tourism involving large resorts; dependency emphasises small scale, locally owned tourism; neo-classical approach stresses the role of privatisation, foreign investment and free markets; and, alternative approach caters to the satisfaction of basic human needs (slide no. 6, Alan Briggs). It can thus be seen that dependency approach seeks to empower indigenous culture while alternative approach takes into account alternative tourism such as ecotourism. 15. Discuss the two levels of governance often experienced by Indigenous cultures. How do the different approaches impact on culture and traditional practices? The two levels of governance often experienced by Indigenous cultures are that of legislative and legitimate. While the legislative power is imposed by the dominant culture the legitimate power is embedded in traditional practices (slide 5, lecture 7). It is thus evident that legislative power caters to the interests of the majority and thus undermines indigenous culture and traditional practices. On the other hand, legitimate governance takes into account the authenticity and diversity of indigenous culture and traditional practices. Essay: Discuss the K-CREDIT approach for Indigenous Tourism. What is it? Why is it important? What are some techniques or applications that the tourism industry can support in order to facilitate the development of K-Credit. The acronym K-CREDIT stands for Knowledge Creation, Retention, Exchange, Devolution, Interpretation and Treatment. The K-CREDIT approach is significant for Indigenous Tourism as it offers a comprehensive strategy for poverty alleviation in Pro-Poor Tourism. The approach takes into account various factors that would empower the indigenous communities through strengthened indigenous knowledge systems and capacity building. The ultimate goal of the K-CREDIT approach is to build pro-poor tourism value chains through knowledge driven interventions. Knowledge management is essential in the tourism industry and the acronym K-CREDIT encompasses a more dynamic and interactive indigenous knowledge systems comprising of such aspects as capacity-building, last mile connectivity, stakeholder responsibilities, entrepreneurship at the grassroots level, information and communication technology, human resource track, and a variety of knowledge-intensive concepts and applications that are employed in the tourism sector (Nadkarni, 2008, p. 456-60). The author identifies capacity building and last mile connectivity as the twin tools to accomplish pro-poor tourism (Nadkarni, 2008, p. 456). Similarly, various stakeholders need to play benign intermediary roles to facilitate this knowledge-driven pro-poor tourism by developing the necessary infrastructure and capacity building at the grassroots level. The K-CREDIT approach presupposes information symmetry and the K-CREDIT process consists of two parallel tracks: the information and communication technology (ICT) track which facilitate information management, and the human resource track that manages human resources (Nadkarni, 2008, p. 459). These two parallel tracks equip the economically marginalized indigenous communities to earn their living by taking advantage of their authentic tourism assets, infrastructural facilities and cultural diversity. To conclude, it can be stated that the K-CREDIT approach offers indigenous communities a unique opportunity to develop knowledge driven interventions and entrepreneurship at the grassroots level (GTE) to their socio-economic advantage. The approach shows the indigenous communities how they can use the tourism industry as an effective tool for poverty alleviation and economic well-being. References Butler, R.W. & Hinch, T. (2007) Tourism and Indigenous Peoples. Issues and Implications. UK: Elsevier. Cohen, E. (1988). Authenticity and commoditization in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 15, 371-386. Janke, Terri. (2008). Indigenous cultural expression and intellectual property. In Ed. Martin Hinton, Daryle Rigney and Elliott Johnston (Ed.), Indigenous Australians and the Law (61-84). USA & Canada: Routledge. Nadkarni, S. (2008). Knowledge Creation, Retention, Exchange, Devolution, Interpretation and Treatment (K-CREDIT) as an Economic Growth Driver in Pro-Poor Tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 11 (5), 456-472. Pearce, P.L. (2005). Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes. Channel View Publications. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2008). World Heritage Information Kit. Retrieved 28 Oct. 14, from, http://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_infokit_en.pdf Read More