Social Work Theories - Research Paper Example

Social work theories Theories about social work explain how social work is carried out in society and what its role is, but theories about the practice and method of social work help to distinguish in detail exactly how the existing theories may be applied in practice, to the interaction between workers and clients (Payne, 2005a). Six characteristics have been identified as contributing to the existing common heritage of social work practice; these elements are (a) social work identified as a profession (b) viewed as a secular occupation and (c) a generalist occupation (d) providing services (e) with most of these services located within the context of the welfare state and (f) social work is a composite of knowledge, skill and values (Ife, 1997). This has been the traditional framework within which social work has been existing, but this is becoming “increasingly out of step with the reality of the contemporary practice context”.(Ike, 1997: 12). The hitherto existing system has produced an increase in individual worker case loads, with less levels of control over one’s work while also faced with ethical dilemmas. The disparity between the traditional role that has been ascribed to social work and the reality of actual practice has resulted in critical reviews being instituted of the existing theories that drive social work and how they can be improved. This essay will examine and critique two specific social work theories (a) crisis intervention theory and (b) feminism. Crisis intervention theory: A crisis occurs when there is a source of stress that arises in the environment. There are three interrelated factors that are responsible for the generation of a crisis (a) a hazardous event which poses a threat (b) the threat is posed to the person’s instinctual needs, which may also be linked to earlier threats that may have occurred, thus making a person vulnerable to the threat and (c) the inability to respond appropriately to the crisis with an adequate level of coping mechanisms.(Rapoport, 1965:25-26). Dealing with crises is an integral part of social work, because it is a time when people need help. Situations presenting danger or opportunity call for effective decision making by social workers. The crisis theory states that in a developmental or situational crisis, the habitual ways of coping do not work, either because the situation is too new and has not been anticipated or because the events in question are too overwhelming for individuals to deal with. The underlying assumption of the crisis theory is that there are a number of needs, such as physical, psychosocial and socio-cultural needs that contribute to the basic ego that a person has. Hence, when one or more of these needs is cut off, then a person experiences a feeling of threat to his or her basic integrity and ego identity as a person, which generates a crisis where the person struggles to preserve his or her identity.(Caplan,1964:31-33). The crisis theory mainly looks at the mental health implications that may arise when a crisis is generated in a person’s life and a threat is posed to his or her basic ego identity. The role of a social worker in a situation where such a crisis has been generated is to help the individual concerned to deal with the elements causing the stress and to overcome it. The social worker can often achieve this by adopting a role that is supportive, listening and empowering. Traditional social work approaches may not however be adequate to handle increasing levels of crisis situations that are characteristic of the present day. For instance, the dilemma that is posed to social workers in addressing crises such as alleged child abuse is that “precipitate intervention is seen as unwarranted and as an invasion of the rights, autonomy and privacy of the family, whereas the failure to intervene in certain cases is also seen as reprehensible because of the dire consequences for the children involved.”(Asquith 1993:2). When posed with such a dilemma, it becomes difficult for social workers in practice to adopt a progressive approach, burdened down as they are by loads of case files and criticism about interference with the autonomy of the family unit. A crisis perpetuates anxiety in an individual and may also result in a breakdown of normal relationships that an individual has with others. A crisis poses a threat to one’s self identity, not only by posing an attack to the body (as in illness or abuse) or the emotions (as in the death of a significant person), but it also brings about some degree of loss in extensions of the self through relationships which were previously held to be meaningful. In such a situation, the social workers has the task not only of assisting a person to regain his or her self identity but also to help the individual concerned to create a new set of extensions to the self by the establishment of new relationships, patterns of action and habits. Several studies have been carried out on how social workers react to the needs of individuals that are identified after the crisis. For example, a study carried out Murphy (2005) found that a reconfiguration of the existing structure to extend the scope of provision of services, coupled with complete evaluation of the service is helpful in providing access to services to young people who are at risk of exclusion. Yet, while social workers have to deal with changes in practice on a continuous basis (Payne 2005b) , restructuring also results in trained workers leaving and taking their skills and experience with them. The nature of existing social work services is such that it functions more from a restorative perspective to help an individual who is afflicted by a crisis, rather than functioning on a preventive basis, to identify problems and fix them before they reach a crisis stage. Social work in crisis intervention has been predominantly too-passive or too-active. Social workers who are loaded down with huge case loads are unable to effectively ensure that there is an equitable and fair distribution of resources, skills and their time in coping with individuals who are going through the aftermath of a crisis. The scarcity of financial resources available in terms of allocations from federal and state funds in particular, functions as a significant deterrent in the effective dispensation of services. For example, it is only after the Katrina debacle that effective crisis response management systems have been devised, to not only ensure that resources are in place to provide for the basic needs of individuals, but also to ensure that social workers are available to help them deal with the psychological aftermath as well. Feminism: Social work, as viewed under the feminist theory, offers the argument that it may be the social factors in the environment that have persisted for generations, which are the likely causal factors for the special needs of women that social workers must try to meet. A structural perspective of this has been set out as follows: “Based on a socialist ideology, located within the radical social work camp, grounded in critical theory, and operating from a conflict view of society, structural social work views social problems as arising from a specific societal context - liberal, neo-conservative capitalism- rather than from the failings of individuals.” (Mullaly, 1997:133) Feminist theories of social work therefore focus upon the inequities and imbalances that are experienced by women, which are the result of social conditioning. Females have traditionally been expected to adopt a more submissive, conciliatory role and develop into nurturers and care takers. On the other hand, men are socially conditioned to be more aggressive and competitive and to adopt a leadership role. Feminists have argued that this has produced differences and inequities in the manner in which society treats men and women. Social work with women therefore requires a different approach, because they are often more likely to be the victimized elements. Dominelli and McLeod (1989) have offered the view that feminist social work is “informed by a feminist analysis of social problems.” (Dominelli and McLeod, 1989:1). This is based upon the premise that men and women are differently restricted by society, hence “feminism is, at its core, very simple: the belief that men and woman should have equal opportunity for self-expression" (Foss, 1989: 151). Feminists strive to advance the cause of women and to ensure that they are treated on par with men but with their special needs recognized. In reality, men and women may not necessarily have equal opportunities for self expression and the social problems faced by women may be caused largely due to the differences in the treatment meted out to females as compared to males. Feminist theory has focused upon the identification of the specific ways in which “women experience their existence; drawing people’s attention to the lack of resources, power and emotional fulfillment which hold women down; exposing the social relations and social forces responsible for creating their state of affairs; and placing the plight of women firmly on the agenda for social change.” (Dominelli and McLeod, 1989: 23). Feminist theory may be especially relevant when applied in the sphere of social workers, because it allows for the incorporation of a broader understanding of the range of problems that may be faced by women and the reasons for the occurrence of such problems. For instance, one of the paradigms that has conditioned strategies in social work with women and older persons is Erikson’s eight stage theory. The stage which is particularly applicable in the case of older women who have experienced the full ramifications of repression of women, is the stage of integrity vs despair. Social work therapy in this area tends to focus upon the resolution of the conflicts that occur in life through the process of reminiscing, which is a natural process and allows an individual to arrive at resolutions and conclusions that may be acceptable to her. (Butler, 1963). Feminist author Catherine McKinnon has proposed that the rights of men be restricted in American society, because hitherto, they have functioned as the powerful groups who are the only ones with the right to free speech and whose voices are heard, over and above the women and minority groups who have “been silenced by their powerlessness” (McKinnon, 1993: 77-78). She therefore proposes that there is a deep bond that unites women all over the world and this belief is not based on race or shared values or the fact that all women are members of the human race – rather it is based upon a common experience which all women share – the experience of feeling powerless, subjugated and dominated by men, left to suffer as helpless victims with a society controlled by men and in a system of jurisprudence that was essentially male, inspite of its proclaimed impartiality. On this basis, social work with women will fail to achieve its objectives if it fails to take into account, the existing historical inequality of women perpetrated by existing social roles and mores. Conclusions: Social work is practice is mostly shaped in accordance with the need of the times and the problems that they present. The profession itself may also change from within itself, depending upon how social workers perceive what they do and how they define what they may wish to do. As a result, the field of social work needs to be dynamic, receptive to changes and able to make adjustments as necessary. Mullaly(1993) offers the view that a conventional approach to social work has accepted and participated in the existing norms of society, but what may actually be required is a reformation of the present social order through social workers adopting a progressive outlook which should form the basis of a radical social work approach. The analysis of the crisis theory and the feminist theories of social work reveal different perspectives in the approach to the problems they generate for the social worker. While a crisis may require social workers to intervene quickly in assisting an individual before mental health problems are caused, a feminist approach requires a more thoughtful analysis of the various factors that have contributed to the inequality of women. It thus involves the incorporation of a historical perspective in analyzing and coping with problems. Both the situations may require the social worker to work with the individual over a long period, and on a continuous basis in order to ensure that the problems are solved. Social work has been guided by paradigms that support a non interventionist approach, radical measures are not favored in general in the sphere of social work. But in a changing global and social environment, it appears likely that it is precisely a radical approach that is required in social work. The progressive decline in federal and state funding available for social work is another significant inhibiting factor in the efficacy of social work and this is yet another aspect that may need to be addressed. It appears likely that existing theories of social work may need to be applied with a greater degree of flexibility to a changing global situation where the scope and nature of problems faced by individuals are varying from day to day. Crisis theories of social work may need the application of a more radical, progressive approach by social workers to address problems, while social workers applying the feminist theory may need to be more sensitive to the changes that are occurring in the status and treatment of women with the passage of time. While these theories offer a good foundation upon which social workers can develop their working style and respond to individuals who need help, it is vital that a more radical approach is used by social workers, as suggested by Mullaly, if they are to be truly effective. Bibliography * Asquith, S (1993). “Protecting children: Cleveland to Orkney: more lessons to learn?”, Edinburgh: HMSO * Butler, R. N, 1963. “The life review: An interpretation of reminiscence in the aged”, Psychiatry, 26: 65-76. * Caplan, Gerald, 1964. “Principles of preventive Psychiatry”, MD: Basic Books * Foss, Sonja K, 1989. “Rhetorical Criticism”, Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. * Ife, Jim, 1997. “Rethinking Social Work”, Australia: Longman. * MacKinnon, Catherine, 1993. “Only Words” Massachusetts: Harvard University Press * Mullay R, 1993. “Structural Social Work: Ideology , theory and practice”, Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. * Murphy, A (2005) Developing children’s trust approaches September 17, 2008. * Payne, Malcolm, 2005 (a). “Modern Social Work Theory”, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan * Payne, M (2005) (b) The Origins of Social Work: Continuity and Change, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. * Rapoport, Lydia, 1965. “The state of crisis: some theoretical considerations”, In “Crisis Intervention: Selected Readings” (Howard Parad edn), New York: Family Service Association of America. Read More