Social Science vs Social Criticism - Essay Example

Positive and normative social science The relationship between social science and social criticism is most evident when examining the historic context of development of sociology as a science in the 20-th century. Development of social science, and international relations in particular, was strictly along positivistic, scientific-objectivist lines up until mid-1960s.1 The work by Kenneth Waltz's Theory of International Politics (1979)2 is generally regarded as the milestone in the history of international relations: it marks the point at which the positivist epistemology began its decline and the normative approach was undertaken. The major reason of the shift in methodology of social science is application of critical theory. Critical theory must be distinguished from a traditional approach according to the practical purpose of this theory: it is critical to the extent that it involves human emancipation in order to provide freedom to humanity from "the circumstances that enslave them".3 According to the scholars that support this view, social inquiry must combine but not separate the two poles of philosophy and social science, normative and positive, explanation and understanding. This approach allows being practical in a moral rather than simply instrumental sense: "Critical theory, through the process of self-understanding and self-reflection, is able to provide a critique of the existing social order and point to its immanent capacity for change and for the realization of human potential."4 Thus, critical theory raises meta-theoretical questions about the very concept of theorizing, nature of thought, acquisition of knowledge and how social science as a discipline constructs itself in its essence. Basically, critical theory is the leading voice in an ongoing debate about foundations. Thus, in order to investigate the relationship between social science and political or social criticism, an insight into the critical theory and how it is allocated among contemporary views is required. Modernism, positivism, and pragmatism In accordance with modernism, there is an impersonal underlying reality that has no intrinsic meaning, exists independent from any human activity or perception and acts by its own laws. Through discovery of these laws the genuine truth can be found. At the same time, human intelligence is perceived to have authority and is distinct from any other natural factors. Science, in its turn, is a projection of human intelligence and in its purest form has supreme intellectual authority in revelation of truth. Consequently, science is the only way for mankind to become free from traditions. So, the questions that is raised is whether social science should be free from binary thinking and shift from oppositional to relational thinking.5 The methodology applied by modernism is rooted in epistemology: rationalism and empiricism. While empiricism relies on a posteriori experience and accumulation of data through senses in a search for the ultimate truth, rationalism is centered on application of correct principles of logical reasoning. Both principles can be found in pragmatism and positivism.6 Positivism approach discussed above was mainly used in social science as the only rational and objective one. Through neutral objective observation without any influence on the observed value free knowledge about truth can be discovered. Thus, this is the only knowledge that can be regarded as the true knowledge, as it is founded on reality, "Nature's own language". 7 The pragmatic approach, that is used in critical theory and now is adopted by social science, does not concentrate on the nature of things and rejects existence of the true foundations for knowledge. Truth, as implied by pragmatists, has an intrinsic instrumental value in interpretation of every belief by tracing the practical consequences. Going even further then this, truth and reality is a creation of human mind, thus a pragmatic approach lies beyond epistemology.8 Consequently, all knowledge is normative, and human mind can never go beyond illusions of which the reality itself is composed. Thus, critical theory rejects existence of independent a priori truth and does not regard positivist empirical science as the only source of true knowledge, the knowledge is always normative. This is the change that was brought into social science by social criticism that was adopted as a dominant approach. The relationship between the two will further be discussed in the light of major concepts of the critical theory and the practical implications it has in terms of social science. Critical theory: Frankfurt School Critical theory was first developed by representatives of Frankfurt School: the leading lights include Habermas, Adorno, and Max Horkheimer. There are three major versions of the critical theory, the first two were developed by Horkheimer and Adorno, whereas the last and the most important - by Habermas. The first version refers to the original conception of critical theory as a critical social theory: the initial framework within which the traditional social science disciplines can be integrated in accordance with Marxian theory to analyze the society and thus further facilitate the process of social transformation.9 The second version of the critical theory was developed as a critique of instrumental rationality and positivism that further establishes an argument that the civilization process established a hermetic society suffused with domination from which escape in any sense is impossible. 10 Thus, the theory traces the reasons underlying extinguishment of emancipator transformation. The third version of the theory that is attributed to Habermas attempts to develop a critical theory of society within the theory of communicative action: the approach transcends the Marxian focus on productive relations and the problems associated with it; it also highlights emancipator potential in the process of communication.11 As Raymond Guess states, the idea of critical theory is rooted in the Marxist concept of Ideologiekritik: ideal and procedures are the products of real material conditions. The heart of the critical theory is the criticism of ideology.12 According to the scholars of the Frankfurt School, a critical theory can be regarded as an adequate one only if it meets the following three criteria: it is explanatory, practical, and normative. All three conditions must be necessarily true: the critical theory explains the problems with the present social reality, further, identifies subjects that might influence and change it, and further provides clear norms for criticism alongside with evident practical goals for transformation.13 Both Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno emphasize the relationship between knowledge and interest thus bringing social science into a new dimension. According to the authors, knowledge always serves somebody; consequently, being a product of history, it cannot be separated from the general context. Thus, critical theory itself is a product of society, but as a scientific approach, it distances itself from the social context in order to provide an independent look and influence society. Consequently, it adopts a different look at the essence of knowledge; it rejects knowledge as being inevitable. Adorno believes that the concept of human understanding is rooted in identity thinking: a particular concept is understood in terms of a universal concept. The scholar aims to identify the falseness of identity thinking by enacting critical consciousness, thus a critic will "assess the relation between concept and object, between the set of properties implied by the concept and the object's actuality".14 Critical theory was further developed by another scholar from the Frankfurt School, Jrgen Habermas. The scholar also attempts to create an alternative foundation for knowledge: he derives the three interests that constitute knowledge from social science. The first two are the cognitive interests that are motivated by the material wants and needs and lead to interest in control of environment. This interest is applicable to empirical, analytical sciences and led to development of historical hermeneutics sciences that are concerned with symbolism, social norms and meaning of language. The work knowledge is widely known as instrumental action: knowledge is based on investigation and, consequently, is governed by empirical rules and further the criterion of effective control of reality determines the appropriateness and correctness of the potential action. The practical domain refers to human social interaction, as social knowledge is governed by consensual norms that define behavior expectations between individuals in the society. Emancipatory cognitive interest belongs to the third category and is derived from human ability to reflective reasoning: emancipation through reflection leading to a transformed consciousness. Consequently, through the process of self-reflection an individual is able to perceive society as an instant struggle for power and through analytical thinking to derive the "historical compulsions of the past".15 Thus, emancipatory cognitive interests constitute critical theory that, in its turn, defines the dominant approaches undertaken by social science. The reasoning underneath the cognitive division proposed by Habermas is based on the authors' views on political science as well as an attempt to argue the positivist claim to true knowledge. According to the scholar, the classical political notion is lost. Since classical politics is directly related to ethics, philosophy and in its essence it is open-ended, it is excluded from the linear historical process that is progressing towards utopia. Going even further then this, the modern concept of politics is rooted in scientific rationality: society is organized, it is perceived as a structural order that functions independently of people. Consequently, the contemporary order is not questioned, but rather is taken for granted. Thus, politics is concerned with distribution of resources, but not with the reasons for the settled pattern of events, politics is transformed into a technical science and is reduced to management. Thus, science shapes the image of society in accordance with the technical model established by politics. This leads to deprivation of individuals of political and self consciousness.16 Thus, the argumentation proposed by Habermas on positivism is not for the sake of reasoning itself, but rather has a practical interest. The scholar intends to redirect the established view of politics to the classical notion. Going even further then this, he argues that other sources of knowledge including Critical Theory that are based on various social interests such as emancipatory, are equally important. The concept of truth, as proposed by Habermas is rooted in rational consensus. Thus, the emphasis on emancipatory interests does not lead to any theory being regarded as a true one only because it promotes emancipation. And this is the reason why the scholar proposes the criterion of validity of truth stated above. The truth must not be simply agreed upon by the dominant majority, but also must have specific rational features so that it does not loose its intrinsic meaning. Consequently, emancipation can be defined as the achievement of rational autonomy. The author states that the rational consensus can be achieved through logical argumentation with a rational basis in an ideal speech situation. Due to the fact that human speech is not meaningless as it is a channel for expression of thoughts, the ideal speech situation can hardly be called a theoretical construct, but rather something inherent in language. In case of occurrence of the ideal speech situation, all information transmitted through language is fully understood by the recipient; this makes communication totally opened. Usage of free language relates to all languages, consequently, the fully emancipated society is inherently present in language. Fay is also concerned with practical aspects of the critical theory and social science. Through examination of traditional approaches to critical social sciences Fay analysis the basic assumptions on what it is to be human. The scholar presents an ontological view of human kind in the framework of critical social science. Thus, Fay is concerned with the practical achievements of critical social theories as well the analysis of consequences for individuals.17 Critical theory: Antonio Gramsci and Robert Cox The second major contribution in critical theory and social science was made by Antonio Gramsci. The difference between the two schools can be brought down to the issue of intellectual orientation, as Gramsci and the followers, in contrast with the Frankfurt School, are mainly concerned with political economy rather then political and normative theory. Thus, Gramscians concentrate on the economic base, while the Frankfurt School on superstructure. The two views in this relation can be referred to as different sides of the same coin. Gramsci cannot be regarded as just a theorist of an economic base; the scholar goes far beyond this. He was one of the first to recognize the relative autonomy of the superstructure and to speculate upon the dialectical nature of the base-superstructure relationship. The contribution was also made in the field of culture and identity. Going even further then this, development of the powerful analytical and critical tools established a framework through which social orders and social transformations are understood.18 Robert Cox is one of the followers of Gramsci and among others has drawn on critical theory in international relations. Similar to followers of the Frankfurt School, Cox establishes the connection between knowledge and interests and stresses the need for reflexivity. The scholar distinguishes between two perspectives on theory depending on the purpose. In accordance with the first problem theory, the theory itself is a guide and operational framework for finding solutions, whereas the second is the critical theory in which the theory itself and the process of theorizing are reflected upon. Thus, Cox gives an opportunity to choose a different perspective that involves different order, categories, and solutions to the problems. Critical theory: two sides of one coin and the foundations of social science The two branches of the theory establish a framework of critical theory for social science: the theory questions the dominant world order through a reflective stance on the order. Going even further then this, the theory questions the origins and the status of social and political institutions and the evolutionary change over a period of time. Theory aims at understanding of the reasons underlying the change within the complex and single parts of politics and society. By viewing the historic evolution as a continuous process, critical social theory establishes universality and historic contingency of the elements in relation to the established the world order. Critical theory also attempts to find solutions to the existing problems within the boundaries of the established world order. As noted by Hoffman, critical theory "contains a normative, utopian element in favor of a social and political order different from the prevailing order but also recognizes the constraints placed on possible alternative world order by historical process: the potential for transformation exists within the prevailing order but it is also constraint by the historical forces that created that order."19 Consequently, critical theory can be regarded as guide to the strategic actions and practice of the theory becomes a political act. The fact that critical theory directly engages in the process of change and attempts to find solutions to the existent problems serves as a ground for Habermas to distinguish theoretical and practical discourses. While the theoretical one deals with challenges to truth, a practical discourse is related to normative rightness.20 Thus, according to Haacke the theoretical discourse is of vital importance for the assessment of technologies and strategies. Critical theory is further linked to interpretive approaches in social theory. The addition of the ideal speech concept into the concept of in depth hermeneutics is emphasized since Habermas' framework of rational consensus, which can be reached in ideal speech situation, depends on communication, while hermeneutics is not.21 Linklater concentrates on the issues of inclusion and exclusion in social science and international relations in particular. Since the scholar aims at creation of new forms of global political relations that do not exclude any individuals and is equal, he rejects the idea of sovereignty and argues for the united community of mankind.22 Consequently, the normative purpose of critical theory for this scholar is centered on further extension of both moral and political community in global international relations. Going even further then this, the author considers the specific emphasis of the critical theory on emancipation to be one of the major contributions that should be even more central in the field of international relations. As critical theory also concentrates on communication processes, it does not deny or extinguish cultural diversity and difference thus providing a way to total universalism. Views of Mark Hoffman on establishment of a post sovereign society are similar to that of Linklater. The scholar considers critical social movements to be the dominant shifters of boundaries. Thus, critical theory is the next stage in development of international relations theory; however the methodology should not exclude the elements of classical theories in the field. The focus in international relations should be shifted to a post-realist focus through integration of critical theory.23 Hoffman agrees on the threefold division of interests proposed by Habermas: practical, technical, and emancipatory interest results in a different type of knowledge that should be equally considered. Thus, critical theory brings up the concept of reflexivity into social science through recognition of emancipatory interest in knowledge and acceptance of the remaining two traditional interests. Social criticism and social science Social criticism raises the most fundamental questions in social science: relevance of scientific knowledge to different spheres of experience and, consequently, significance of a broader and practical consideration for human understanding of the scientific theory itself. Critical theory brings a new notion into social theory: social or practical decisions cannot be treated as only technical matters decided by technological experts. While general methods of technology do represent practical considerations, individual decisions, choice, and involvement should be considered through the balance of diverse considerations that include environment and humanism, aesthetics and economics. Social criticism involves discussions of significance of science itself. However, critical theory instead of putting a stop to positive scientific methodology, suggests a need to broad the scope of social science: scholars should concentrate on estimation of the position of science in regard to the larger social order through analysis of social structure and extended methodology of operations research. Social criticism once again stresses the idea that the distinctive feature of science does not lie in the types of objects that a scientists has an access to, but rather in the procedures employed by the scientist in order to find solutions to the major problems. Bibliography Adorno, Theodor W. On the Fetish-Character in Music and the Regression of Listening, in Andrew Arato and Eike Gebhardt (eds.), The Essential Frankfurt School Reader. New York: Continuum, 1979. Adorno, Theodor W., and Max Horkheimer, The Dialectic of Enlightenment. London: Verso, 1944/1979. Fay, Brian, Critical Social Science: Liberation and its Limits. Cambridge: Polity, 1987. Guess, Raymond, The Idea of a Critical Theory: Habermas and the Frankfurt School. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Haacke, Jrgen, Theory and Praxis in International Relations: Habermas, Self-Reflection, Rational Argumentation. Millennium: Journal of International Studies 24 (2) 1996. Habermas, Jrgen, "The Theory of Communicative Action" Lifeworld and System: A Critique of Functionalist Reason. London: Heinemann, 1989. Held, David, Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley: University of California Press,1980. Hoffman, Mark, Critical Theory and the Inter-Paradigm Debate, Millennium: Journal of International Studies 16 (2) 1987. Lacey, Postmodern Economics: An Emerging Paradigm. (Dissertation) Cincinnati: The Union Institute, 1996. Linklater, Andrew, The Question of the Next Stage in International Relations Theory: A Critical-Theoretical Point of View, Millennium: Journal of International Studies 21 (1) 1992. Rorty, Richard in Lacey, Postmodern Economics: An Emerging Paradigm. (Dissertation) Cincinnati: The Union Institute, 1996. Rupert, Mark, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Sampson, Aaron B., Tropical Anarchy: Waltz, Wendt, and the Way We Imagine International Politics, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 27(4) 2002, 429-456. Smith, Steve, "The Forty Years Detour: The Resurgence of Normative Theory in International Relations ", Millennium: Journal of International Relations 21(3) 1992. Spike Peterson, V., "Transgressing Boundaries: Theories of Knowledge, Gender and International Relations", Millennium: Journal of International Studies 21(2) 1992. Read More