Career Management and Development - Assignment Example

Running Head: Career Management/Development Career Management/Development By _____________________________ Every practice is baseddirectly or indirectly on theory. Nowhere is there more theory than in the learning enterprise. Seldom is theory systematically applied in career management and its development. The tendency is to use theory to support technology, rather than to derive technology from theory. From an analysis of different schools of theory, one can conclude that no one learning theory is comprehensive and adequate for all situations. Generally speaking, many practitioners, at times, use the theory most applicable for the desired outcome. There is, however, a mainstream hypothesis: that experiential learning is more effective than other approaches for increasing will and competence to learn and use learning. Theory can help the manager or an individual learn what can be generalised from one unique experience and applied in another unique situation. Theory can also provide categorisations for the manager to be able to select and adapt from past learning to meet current needs and conditions. Categorisation not only eases recall and adaptation of past learning, it tends to keep learning active and not inert. In this discussion, we'll be discussing various aspects that are surrounded by the management concepts and are helping individuals managing and developing their career. Goal Setting Unless the new manager is in the enviable position to start a new unit and hire all new staff, he or she will be hired to manage people who have probably worked together for some time. They have a history among themselves and, like any relationship, some of it is positive and some of it is not so positive. Each new manager will be faced with a unique situation. Management of Career through classroom training alone does not often help the new manager or employee deal with this unique set of challenges. When possible a facilitator or coach from the Human Resources Department or elsewhere should work with the manager or any employee who is learning and his or her staff to assist in a number of important tasks. Probably the most important activity would be assisting in a discussion of the group's strengths and weaknesses and what the group can do in the next year or so to leverage its strengths and begin to overcome any weaknesses. A discussion of opportunities that lie ahead for the group in the next year should also be identified. This analysis can lead to a goal-setting discussion which should ideally include the new manager's/employee's boss. Goals can be set and specific action steps developed which will help the group focus on the most important work they should be doing in the near future. The distant future should also be a discussion topic. With the help of the coach the new manager should work in conjunction with his/her staff to develop a vision statement for the unit. It might also be wise to circle back to be sure the goals and action steps defined earlier are consistent with the vision statement. It should be noted that typically a planning effort starts with a vision statement and goal setting follows from it. However, a new manager needs time with his or her boss and staff before he or she can develop one that fits with the vision of senior management and the organisational culture. Goal setting, for a one-year period or even less, on the other hand, is easier to do and helps to build the working relationship between the manager and staff. Staff understandably will be nervous about how their day-to-day responsibilities might change and goal setting will help answer any questions regarding these responsibilities. However, also troubling new staff will be the working relationship that must now be established with the new boss. The group facilitator can assist in helping define this relationship through a process sometimes referred to as Team Chartering, often used with new project teams. During the chartering process, the staff and manager will discuss the norms that they would like to see develop in their unit. An example of a norm might be "we will meet weekly to discuss progress toward goals and objectives," or "the manager will meet with each staff member at least once a year to discuss career development issues." These norms become a group charter, posted for all to see, that help to establish a positive working climate. Each member of the group is responsible for monitoring whether or not the group is adhering to the charter-and, of course, it should be evaluated periodically to determine whether items should be added, deleted, or modified. The Modular Preceptoral Method We believe that this method of career management is one that should be considered for new managers, as well. Hill (1992) believes that new managers should engage in constructive introspection about themselves and their managerial role as well as call upon different people to assist them in any self-diagnosis. She stresses that new managers should be committed to continuous learning. One method to ensure both of these goals is the modular preceptoral method. Organisations should consider working with management faculty at a local college or university to offer this method of management development for new managers. Several characteristics of the modular preceptoral method should be particularly attractive to new managers: 1. The program can be set up for a relatively short period of time per session, minimising time away from the workplace. 2. Defining and solving the manager's problems is central to the program. Learning and its use in the work venue are integrated. 3. Participants receive regular feedback on their skill development in a safe, nurturing atmosphere. 4. Central to the program is the objective of helping participants learn from their work experience so that mistakes won't be repeated and the transitioning process can be facilitated. Other Important Skills Strong communication skills are a preliminary to any job today, including the job of a new manager. Basic communication skills training can assist the new manager in giving specific feedback, coaching, and counseling staff, and providing ongoing support. There are a number of approaches to communication skills training but the key to an effective one appears to be practice, practice, and more practice. An effective training program is Interpersonal Managing Skills by Learning International, Inc. (New York). This training program focuses on four important skills of clarifying information: confirming understanding of information; providing constructive criticism; managing differences to uncover the needs and priorities of others in relation to one's own needs; and crediting or giving positive recognition. Participants in this program have the opportunity to practice using the skills in a variety of situations. Learning International provides participants with a guide that includes tips on using the skills in interpersonal situations such as building teamwork, setting performance objectives, and conducting performance appraisals. Gabarro (1987) stressed that the degree to which managers and their direct reports influence each other beyond the authority given to them by their respective roles was seen as very important. We believe that the skill of influence should be a priority skill for the new manager to develop. The Cohen-Bradford Model of Influence can be very useful. Cohen and Bradford (1991) suggest that in order to influence effectively a manager must first clarify his or her own goals and priorities. They believe this to be important because one needs to know what is required from others to get one's own goals met. Second, the managers must diagnose their allies' world. Knowing what is important to their allies will help the managers determine what their goals are and what they might need from the managers to get those goals accomplished. The key allies for the new manager are subordinates and the boss. The next step in the model is to assess their own resources relative to their allies' needs. What do you have that your allies need that can be exchanged for what you need The fourth step is to diagnose the relationship with all relevant allies. In the case of a new manager, he/she may not have any past relationship. However, one can't always assume that the relationship has started out positively either. If the relationship is definitely poor, proceed with caution. The manager will need to build up the relationship and establish trust slowly over time. Finally, the manager is ready to determine the exchange approach. Cohen and Bradford consider all transactions in organisations as exchanges between people. These can support or undermine the goals of the organisation. They point out that a job, in and of itself, is a clear example of an exchange. Your organisation hires and agrees to pay you, and, in return, you have certain tasks and responsibilities that must be carried out. Cohen and Bradford highlight the fact that real power and influence is gained by giving people what they need to get their work accomplished. For example, one of the members of the new manager's staff might feel a need to have a relationship with the boss that includes having his frustrations listened to on a regular basis. If the manager is able to listen and provide feedback to the subordinate regularly, the subordinate's need in this area will be met and he or she will be more likely to give the manager what he or she needs as well. Another subordinate might feel a need to be always in the know, being on top of what is going on in the organisation. If the manager can supply this individual with information, the subordinate's need will be met, and once again, this individual will be more likely to give the manager what he or she needs. Working toward mutual benefit, according to Cohen and Bradford, is what true partnership is all about. Organisational Dynamics, Inc. (Burlington, Massachusetts) has developed a two-day training program based on the Cohen-Bradford Model. In this program participants analyse important relationships and determine ways to make them mutually productive. When influence attempts fail and there is the perception of two interdependent parties that have incompatible goals, as well as scarce resources, the potential for conflict arises. Conflict management is another important skill set for the new manager. We know that conflict spurs people toward creative solutions and healthy, vibrant organisations require creativity that leads to more innovative ways of conducting business. The new manager requires conflict management skills so that conflict in his or her unit can be managed in a win/win manner. According to Ertel (1991), effective conflict resolution contains these elements among others: it clarifies interests; it builds a working relationship; it generates new options for doing things; it is perceived as legitimate; and it spurs communication. Basic communication skills, influencing skills, and conflict management skills should be among the first set of skills that the new manager develops. According to Whetten and Cameron (1991), these are three of the ten most frequently cited skills of effective managers and we believe they are particularly important to new managers. The Feedback Whetten and Cameron and others suggest that it is difficult, if not virtually impossible, to manage others when you cannot manage yourself. Regular opportunities for self-assessment need to be built into the new manager's job. The modular preceptor method provides this opportunity for self-assessment, as do training programs that focus on skill-building. One other option is the use of 360-degree feedback instruments. Much has been written about 360-degree feedback instruments. One of the problems with these instruments is that they often provide too much feedback. That is, they are designed to provide very comprehensive data about a manager's strengths and weaknesses. To eliminate the manager feeling overwhelmed with data, one approach to consider would be to offer 360-degree feedback on a regular basis with shorter assessment tools. One such tool follows. This tool was designed to give a group of new managers at a small nonprofit organisation information about their perceived strengths and weaknesses. It was designed around items that were important to the organisation's senior management at the time of the assessment. This is one example of a more abbreviated assessment process that can be done regularly. Results can be summarised in a confidential manner and the information communicated to the manager for performance improvement on a regular basis. The literature on management theory and practice is continuously filled with reports about successful as well as not so successful leadership changes. Since the 1980s there has been much interest in the topic of succession planning. However, the term "succession planning" implies a strategic, rather orderly approach, to replacing managers and chief executives. Farquhar (1995) notes that "succession planning" has been overtaken by a focus on leadership transitioning. "Transitioning" implies a less strategic, less orderly process, where managers are expected to understand the external and internal challenges facing the organisation as quickly as possible, adapt strategies within a relatively short time frame, perhaps communicate a new vision, get employees to embrace the vision, or be asked to leave, making room for yet another management transition. In the 1990s, and surely beyond, management transitioning will command more and more attention by researchers as organisations grapple with the simultaneous challenges of increasing productivity, meeting customer demands, and providing job satisfaction for their employees. We are increasingly dependent on competent managers to help us make sense of the changes around us and to provide guidance to us as we continually adapt to customer and shareholder expectations. Management transitions, as it true for all role transitions, are an important type of change that can strongly influence the behaviour as well as the identity of all who participate in the transitioning process. In the case of management change at the very top of an organisation, virtually everyone within the organisation will be impacted, as will key stakeholders outside the organisation. As suggested by Gilmore (1988), management transitions are critical moments in the life of organisations. The transition, particularly at higher levels of the organisation, is an opportunity to rethink the present corporate strategy, to look at opportunities to become more innovative, and to map out a future direction. Gilmore notes that in both the private and the public sector, leadership transitions are often not well thought out or well managed. High-level leadership changes may not be anticipated by superiors or subordinates, leaving the organisation vulnerable, and low morale and low productivity can result. It is desirable to correct this situation as quickly as possible and so individuals making the appointment may act hastily, without thinking through who is the best person for the job. Consequently, the individual moving into the management job may be set up for failure or perhaps a very rocky start. Morale may continue to suffer and productivity decline as the new manager attempts to get up to speed in the new job under rather difficult circumstances. Given all of this, individuals new to management face a particularly difficult task as they transition into their new role. First, because the new manager has not been in a managerial position before, he or she must learn how to be a manager with many people looking on, viewing the successes as well as the failures. Besides mastering the new role, however, they must also cope with the challenges of transitioning into a new unit faced by many transitioning managers, experienced or not. Organisations typically focus on training managers in management skills such as giving and receiving feedback, conducting performance appraisals, and motivating staff. While we think these skills are important and should be learned, we believe that organisations often neglect to provide support to help the new manager with some of the other challenges of the transitioning process. Because of this, organisations may lose momentum that can translate into lost productivity. New managers may become frustrated and so may their subordinates. Now we'll look at some of the typical challenges that all transitioning managers face. We'll also look at some of the skills that new managers need to do their job. Our basic premise is that the management development function in the organisation can better support the new manager by first concentrating on those skills required for the immediate challenges of transitioning and then on the management skills required for long-term success in management. Hill's (1992) research found that new managers did not focus on problem identification and problem solving as they did not fully understand that this was part of their role as manager. In fact, the managers in her study were extremely surprised by all the problems they encountered and by their thinking that many of the problems were not black and white with a clear-cut solution. She identified problem solving as one of the major stressors of the role of the new manager. Thus, we see that the assessment of problems so critical in taking charge, as noted by Gabarro, was not fully appreciated as part of the job by the new managers in Hill's study. In summation, Gabarro provides support that managers in transition need to have skills that will assist them in building strong interpersonal relationships. Such skills might include: influencing others, creating a work climate that is motivating, conflict resolution skills; communication skills; change management skills; and collaborative decision making. They also need skills in taking charge such as problem analysis and decision-making skills. Hill's research suggests that new managers may be naive as to the importance of many of these skills, but surely all of the skills are found useful in the development of the careers of managers and individuals. Reference Agor, W. H. (1989), "Intuition in Organizations: Leading and Managing Productively", Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Burke, W. W. (1976), "Organizational Development in Transition." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 76. Bushnell, D. S. (1990), "Input, Process, Output: A Model for Evaluating Training." Training and Development Journal (March). Cohen, A., and Bradford, D. (1991), "Influence without Authority", New York: Wiley. Connolly, S. (1983), "Participant Evaluation: Finding Out How Well Training Worked." Training and Development Journal (October). Cox, C., and Beck, J. (1984), "Management Development: Advances in Practice and Theory", New York: Wiley. Craig, R. L. (1976), "Training and Development Handbook", New York: McGraw-Hill. Davis, L. E., and Cherns, A. B. (1975), "The Quality of Working Life", New York: Free Press. Deal, T. E. (1986), "Deeper Culture: Mucking, Muddling and Metaphors." Training and Development Journal (January). Dechant, K. (1988), "Accelerating Organizational Culture Change through Management Training", New York: Praeger. Ertel, D. (1991), "Sloane Management", Review 32 (Summer). 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