Critically explore the rise of 'hate crime' in twenty first century society - Essay Example

? Critically explore the rise of 'hate crime' in twenty first century society Introduction In the 21st century, the increase of specific modes of crime is one of the major challenges that legislators worldwide have to face. This paper focuses on the rise of hate crime since the beginning of the 21st century. Emphasis is given to the characteristics of hate crimes but also to the factors that have led to the expansion of hate crimes in modern society. The literature published in the particular field has been reviewed so that answers are retrieved in regard to the above issues. Two have been the main findings of the study: a) hate crimes in the 21st society seem to be closely related to discrimination and b) hate crimes are also likely to be depended on specific social and political conditions: the US political and social environment, as developed especially in the 21st century, has been found to be quite friendly for hate crimes, a phenomenon that has been explored in the literature. In addition, the lack of willingness of governments to fight discrimination cannot be ignored, especially since existing policies and legal frameworks for controlling discrimination has been proved quite problematic as also explained below. 2. Hate crime in the 21st century society 2.1 Hate crime - characteristics Different views have been developed in the literature in regard to the characteristics of hate crimes. Iganski (2008) describes hate crime as a crime committed by ‘someone who has selected his victim in terms of specific criteria, such as race, color, ethnicity, disability, gender and so on’ (Iganski 2008, p.3). In other words, the selection of the victim according to specific criteria is a critical requirement so that a crime is characterized as a hate crime (Altschiller 2005). However, the fact that a crime can be characterized as a hate crime only if the existence of hate is proved has caused important problems in confronting hate crime: in many cases, hate crimes are not characterized as such since the actual motives of the perpetrator are not identified (Roulstone and Mason-Bish 2012). This means that many crimes have been falsely diagnosed as common crimes while they meet the criteria of a hate crime (Roulstone and Mason-Bish 2012). Hate crimes are based on the racial/ cultural or other characteristics of the victims, i.e. they require the existence of discrimination in terms of race, culture, disability or other social characteristic (Altschiller 2005). For Perry (2009) the expansion of discrimination, as a condition favouring hate crimes, can have an important implication: hate groups can be created setting the social order in severe risk. In other words, the promotion of discrimination, as particularly supported by the media, can lead individuals to be organized in groups targeting people with specific characteristics, such as race, culture or disability (Perry 2009). An important aspect of hate crimes is the following one: such crimes can be developed ‘not only against individuals but also against on property’ (Altschiller 2005, p.108). 2.2 Aspects of hate crime in the 21st century When referring to the development of hate crime in the 21st century, emphasis should be given to the following fact: the specific type of crime seems to be highly related to US. In fact, the extremely high number of hate crime incidents in US during the 21st century reveals a relationship between hate crime and geography (Gerstenfeld 2004); indeed, it seems that ‘in the 21st century hate crime has been highly favoured by the political and social environment of US’ (Gerstenfeld 2004, p.12). It should be noted that for the 21st century the categorization of hate crime in US has been related to specific criteria, such as color and race while other criteria, that would be also valuable in characterizing a crime as a hate crime have been ignored. For example, in the 21st century ‘a crime against black people or against Jews is characterized as hate crime while a crime against the members of a union or police officers is not characterized as such’ (Gerstenfeld 2004, p.12). According to Hall (2013) in the 21st century hate crimes are responsible for the condition also known, as ‘cultural trauma’, a condition denoting the extended discrimination against groups with specific racial/ cultural characteristics, such as Roma and Sinti. Indeed, for such groups, hate crimes are usually combined with discrimination related to various aspects of daily life, including work and social life (Hall 2013). In a report published in 2011 by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (US) emphasis is given to the following fact: most hate crimes seems to be based on ethnic/ racial discrimination. In fact, along the hate crimes committed between 2003 and 2009 a percentage of 90% has been proved to be related to ethnic/ racial discrimination (Langton and Planty 2011). Also, the number of hate crimes committed annually in US seems to be rather high: about 195,000 hate crimes have been committed in US annually between 2003 and 2009 (Langton and Planty 2011). In UK also, hate crime is in rise: between 2011 and 2012 the police officers across UK were asked to deal with about 43,748 hate crimes, most of which, about 82% were related to race (Home Office UK 2012). Differences seem to appear in regard to the type of offence involved in hate crimes across UK (Home Office UK 2012). These differences are presented in graph in Figure 1 below. Particular reference should be made to the fact that most of hate crimes are developed as violence against persons and not as other types of offence (Figure 1). Figure 1 – Hate crime, by type of offence, UK, period: 2011-2012 (source: Home Office UK, 2012) In Canada, similar trends in regard to the expansion of hate crime seem to exist. However, different criteria have been established in Canada for characterizing a crime as a hate crime. According to the Canadian legislation, there are four types of hate crime in Canada: ‘advocating genocide, public incitement of hatred, wilful promotion of hatred, and mischief in relation to religious property’ (Allen and Boyce 2013). In Canada also, a crime can be characterized as a hate crime only ‘if it can be proved that it has been motivated by hate’ (Allen and Boyce 2013). In addition, in Canada, as also in UK, the most common type of hate crime is related to race (Allen and Boyce 2013). Figure 2 – Levels of hate crime in Canada, between 2006 and 2011 (source: Allen and Boyce 2013) 2.3 Reasons for the increase of hate crime in the 21st century As explained above, hate crime is usually based on social stereotypes. In case that a violation of these stereotypes takes place, then a hate crime is likely to appear. For example, the events of the September the 11th led to the radical increase of hate towards Arabs (Jacobs 2006). Moreover, in many US areas the violent incidents against black people are, still, quite often (Jacobs 2006); for example, in the Southern states of US the discrimination against black people is obvious. In other words, social beliefs referring to a group of people can affect the judgment of individuals in regard to the particular group. Towards the dame direction, Pittman (2009) noted that the high rate of hate crimes in US in the 21st century can be explained by the following fact: Americans have been strong supporters of their culture and traditions (Pittman 2009). The high increase of immigrants in US has not been welcomed by Americans who have felt as threatened in regard to various aspects of their lives (Pittman 2009). The expansion of terrorist acts across US since the beginning of the 21st century is often considered as a verification of the above fear (Pittman 2009). Of course, it could be noted that US has traditionally supported equality and freedom, in regard to all aspects of life (Palidda 2011). However, when conflicts are developed between national interests and the interests of individuals, the former are expected to win (Palidda 2011). Such approach has been used by the perpetrators of hate crimes in US, as also in other countries, for justifying their activities (Palidda 2011). Still, a crime cannot be accepted no matter the criteria involved, especially since the evaluation of these criteria has been based on personal thoughts and beliefs (Palidda 2011). For most people, hate crimes in US are related to the events of September the 11th. Eatwell and Goodwin (2012) support that the events of the September the 11th should not be regarded as, necessarily, a fact that enhanced hate crimes. It is noted that before the events of the September the 11th the policy of US in regard to the confrontation of terrorism could be characterized as hard, focusing on ‘the gathering of information and the introduction of numerous anti-terrorism laws’ (Eatwell and Goodwin 2012, p.106). After September the 11th, the policy of US government in regard to terrorism has been changed: emphasis has been given on the improvement of cooperation and communication with communities with ‘different cultural/ racial characteristics, especially Muslims, Arabs and Sikhs’ (Eatwell and Goodwin 2012, p.106). The softening of the US policies in regard to the confrontation of terrorism has been necessary after the failure of the hard approach, used previously, for preventing such activity. Different views in regard to the effects of September the 11th on racial discrimination in US have been developed in the literature. According to Grassian (2012) after the events of the September the 11th numerous hate crimes have been developed against Muslims in US. It is also noted that the damage of the image of Arab Americans across USA was highly promoted by the media; TV news and the print media related Arab Americans to violence and terrorism (Grassian 2012). For Pittman (2009) also the development of hate crime in US is related to the events of the September the 11th. It seems that in their effort to attract public’s interest, media has emphasized on details of the racial and cultural background of the perpetrators without taking into consideration the long term effects of such practice for Arab communities across US (Pittman 2009). From another point of view, Palidda (2011) considers that the expansion of hate crime during the 21st century should be related to the increase of the power of political parties that are based on extremism. The increase of immigrants and of those seeking for asylum in the developed countries is also a phenomenon that has led to the development of hate crimes in the 21st century (Palidda 2011). This means that the increase of hate crimes in the 21st century is mostly related to politics and not so much to social ethics or stereotypes, as Jacobs (2006) supported. Politics, as a factor influencing hate crime, includes the policies introduced by the government for facing a specific issue/ problem. In the case of hate crimes, the response of governments to the development of the crime seemed to be rather slow: it was only in 1990 that the US government introduced a law in regard to the gathering of data related to the hate crimes committed across the country (Palmiotto 2000). This law was the ‘1990 Hate Crimes Statistical Act’ (Palmiotto 2000, p. 296) and it was the first initiative of such type, at least at the level of the government. A similar problem has appeared in UK: existing legislation has gaps as of the provision of information to migrants in regard to British law but also in regard to the language requirements in police officers who handle cases related to migrants (House of Commons, UK 2008). As a result, mistakes are made in the reporting of incidents and crimes that should be normally characterized as hate crimes are punished as common crimes (House of Commons, UK 2008). Media seems to have a critical role in the development of hate crime during the 21st century. For example, in the film Network an Arab appeared as ‘having the power to buy US’ (Ameri and Arida 2012, p.40). Moreover, through a series of US films, ‘Arabs were presented as terrorists’ (Ameri and Arida 2012, p.40). Reference could be made to the films Black Sunday and True Lies, films that emphasized on the fight of Americans against Arab terrorists (Ameri and Arida 2012, p.40). Through these films hate has been developed against Arabs, based on the belief that people of the specific racial background are expected to be involved in terrorism (Ameri and Arida 2012). In print media also a similar practice has been adopted destroying the image of Arabs worldwide (Ameri and Arida 2012). The fact that the US government has not tried to set barriers to the victimization of Arabs has verified the image of Arabs, as presented by media (Ronczkowski 2011). In fact, after the events of the September the 11th there was no effort, at least not reported one, of the US government to control the media’s practice to emphasize on the racial characteristics of the perpetrators (Ronczkowski 2011). The high involvement of media in the development of hate crime in the 21st century is further emphasized in the study of Webber and Bezanson (2012). Reference is made to the following example: magazines for young girls across USA tend to refer to the daily life and the needs of white girls, a trend that has caused the reaction of African American girls (Webber and Bezanson 2012). Particular emphasis should be given to the role of the law in the increase of hate crime. Governments worldwide have been proved as unable to introduce effective laws for controlling discrimination, as this practice is related to hate crime (Webber and Bezanson 2012). For example, in Canada law seems to ignore the expansion of hate crimes based on discrimination (Webber and Bezanson 2012); the increase of hate crimes across the country, as analyzed above in section 2.2 should be considered as a result of the above strategy. 3. Conclusion The rise of hate crime has been proved as a key characteristic of the 21st century society. The particular phenomenon has been explained in the literature using different approaches, as presented above. The most dominant of these approaches seems to be the one that emphasizes on the relationship between hate crime and media. Indeed, even if existing governmental policies on discrimination are not well – designed and even if the laws focusing on discrimination suffer from gaps, still the power of media to increase, or even to cause, hate cannot be doubted. In the case of hate crime the involvement of media in promoting discrimination has been found to be extensive: films, magazines and news on TV and on Radio tend to cultivate a negative image for people of particular racial and cultural characteristics, in the context analyzed above. Thus, the development of hate crime is characterized rather as expected and not as occurring randomly. In any case, the rise of hate crime indicates the inability of modern society to protect its principles, such as equality, a failure that could threaten its stability in the near future. References Allen, M. and Boyce, J., 2013. “Police-reported hate crime in Canada, 2011.” Government of Canada. Statistics Canada. Available at . 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Hate Crime and the City. London: The Policy Press. Langton, L. and Planty, M., 2011. “Hate Crime 2003-2009.” Bureau of Justice Statistics, US. Available at . [Accessed at 18 November 2013] Palidda, S., 2011. Racial Criminalization of Migrants in the 21st Century. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Palmiotto, M., 2000. Community Policing: A Policing Strategy for the 21st Century. Gaithersburg: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Perry, B., 2009. Hate Crimes, Volume II. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Pittman, J., 2009. 21st Century Issues in America: An Introduction to Public Administration Theory and Practice. London: AuthorHouse. Ronczkowski, M., 2011. Terrorism and Organized Hate Crime: Intelligence Gathering, Analysis and Investigations, 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Roulstone, A. and Mason-Bish, H., 2012. Disability, Hate Crime and Violence. London: Routledge. Webber, M. and Bezanson, K., 2012. Rethinking Society in the 21st Century: Critical Readings in Sociology. 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