In What Way(S), If At All, Do Race And Ethnicity Still Matter - Essay Example

?In what way(s), if at all, do ‘race’ and ‘ethni still matter? If we observe the street of any big in the world for sampling the apparent variety of humans, we will come across skins from milky white to black; hair from stick straight to thickly curled. It is a common perception that these physical attributes, along with the region of belonging and a shared culture makes a group of people become part of a "race"(Bamshad and Steve, 2003). However, these social ideas are so prevalent that we seldom care for their scientific and political importance. Is a white colored and blue eyed person any better than black colored and curly haired person? Is it more than just different variety of genes? Does commonly held idea of beauty and superiority makes a certain group rule and exploit every other group? The answer in certainly no, however, the idea of race and ethnicity is still prevalent in modern world. This paper tries to explore that in what ways, if at all, 'race' and 'ethnicity' still matters. Race and ethnicity are social constructs that refer to particular social group sharing cultural heritage and ancestry devised by oppressive system of race relations. These constructs are justified by ideology where one group takes advantage over other through domination and defines other groups and itself through that supremacy and possession of some selective and arbitrary physical attributes, such as, skin color(Krieger,2000,36).Racism refers to individual or institutional practices which generate and reinforce the oppressive systems of racial differences and relations (Krieger, 2000, 36).Ethnicity is a social construct that is originally devised to discriminate between the "innately" different groups that allegedly classified as an overall same race (Hobsbawm cited in Krieger, 2002), but now, it refers to the groups allegedly differentiable on the basis on their culture(Haynes and Smedley cited in Krieger, 2002). When it comes to defining race and ethnicity, Markus (cited in DeAngelis, 2008) refers that it is a dynamic set of ideas and practices which are historically derived and institutionalized. This set of ideas and practices let people identify themselves and others on the basis of common characteristics such as, history, nation, language, customs, ancestry, and physical appearance. However, her theory holds that ethnicity is the perception of a group about itself that ensures the sense of identity and belonging, on the other hand, perceptions associated with race are created and reinforced by those who are outside of that particular group, mostly more dominant than the group under consideration. Most of the perceptions and practices associated with race are negative and at odds with their own perception about their group. A recent example is that some Americans' tend to perceive Muslims as terrorists or extremists. Therefore, any perception that Muslims hold as true and beautiful about being Muslim is drowned by this practice of racism (Markus cited in DeAngelis, 2008).Another example is media's hype over whether America is ready for a black president (DeAngelis,2008). Race is a phenomenon that is over-theorized yet not directly associated with the social and political engagement. It is focused on identity more and clearly lacks political engagement. Some like to think that racism is over; however, it is continued in the form of lethal attacks, subtle discrimination, in differential opportunities, bullying, racial profiling, color-blind racism, genocide, behavior with new migrants, asylum seekers in context with nation-state, and political initiatives in Europe and elsewhere when it comes to integration. Moreover, recent outbreaks of ethnic cleansing from Iraq to Sudan highlight the presence of ethnicity in modern world and its conflicts (Bulmer and Solomos, 2004, pp.8 -10: Brett, 2002). The happenings such as migration, displacement, and differential reach to nation states and their allocation systems has created an intricate mixture of race, migration, and ethnicity. The older blades of migration and racial alignment are redesigned by the newer systems and we are trying to understand this new racial grammar. New global inequalities stem out from this new system of migration that demands for global social justice and rights. Some other recent trends also need our attention, for instance, the idea of race and ethnicity needs to be applied on those who used it for others but not their own selves. Scholars working on Critical White Studies believe that whiteness works as a medal of racial privilege, and a point of critical reflection on a racial past that is filled with violence and exploitation. They (Frankenberg 2004, Back 2004, Gallagher 2003a 2003b) highlight the fact that all humans are race and ethicized, therefore, the system of advantage and disadvantage on which the idea of race thrives connect everyone, thus expands the horizon of anti-racist struggle in modern world (cited in Knowles, n.d., .8). Knowels (n.d.) argues that race is created and activated as a tool to make social distinctions by utilizing people's routine action. All of us are playing active role in producing race. There are the kinds of personal matters which are more than personal since racialized societies survive by similar regimes. In today's world, we need to understand this intersection between people and regimes to deal with race and ethnicity (Knowles, n.d., .8). In addition to subtle discriminations, ethnicity and race are directly associated with violent conflicts in today's world. Ethnification on the basis of race is inherent to the structure of modern world system. During the current age of transition, ethnic mobilization challenges the smooth functioning of the word system. Such mobilizations destroy the capitalist civilization project and increase cost for system (Dunaway, 2003, p.3). Dunaway (2003) identifies five ways in which counter-hegemonic mobilization of ethnic minorities are expensive for world system and can take it towards bifurcation and transition. Recently, the scholars seem preoccupied with the ethnic resistance that suddenly became dangerous. Some scholars believe that postmodernism (Friefman, 1992) and modern structure of monetary and cultural globalization are leading to increased ethnic disintegration throughout the world (cited in Dunaway, 2003, p.5). The UNHCR (2002) report identifies ethnic tensions among the adjacent countries as leading cause of warfare in 21st century. According to the Minorities at Risk Project (2002 cited in Dunaway, 2003, p.5), levels of world population exposed to ethnic conflict is increasing. The empirical data from report (2002) identifies: 1. 239 wars, regime transitions, and genocide during 1955 and 1996: major cause was inter-ethnic conflicts (Harff and Gurr, 1997, p.5). 2. 60 distinct ethnic and religious minorities were targeted during 1980 and 1996 3. In late 1990s, 275 groups in 116 countries were at risk of violent repression from their national governments, initiating rebellion against other ethnic group, or involving in collective violent action against another ethnic group(Gurr,1999) 4. In the beginning of 21st century, one quarter of Latin American and Caribbean population, and one third of the African and Middle Eastern population was exposed to the risk of open ethnic conflict (Gurr, 1999). Modern world has inherited this ethnic fragmentation; it is not a dimension of postmodernism or globalization. Ethnic identity is a part of the world's system from its beginning and it shifted to modern world through the historical process embedded in the logic and structure of this system. Racism served as a support to the world system in its evolution because it worked as the structural mechanism by which division of labor would be incorporated into the universal capitalist culture (Immaneul, 1983, p.83). In order to rationalize surplus extractions, political inequalities, and wealth concentration, the powerful group confines people on the other end through their policies of polarization, exclusion, repression, and discrimination (Cox 1959: Rodney 1973 cited in Dunaway, 2003, p.7). Afterwards this dominant group spreads myths and stereotypes that ideologically cover its violence and oppression of the ethnic minority. As a result of the resistance of marginalized groups, recurrent births, disappearance, restructuring, and resurgence of the group appear. Therefore, the world history has been the opposite of cultural homogenization; rather it has been a trend towards cultural differentiation, complexity, and elaboration (Wallerstein as cited in Dunaway, 2003, p.7). Consequently, ethnic differentiation is no less defining characteristic of the modern world than cultural hegemony and national assimilation (Dunaway, 2003, p.7). Ethnic conflicts result from structural disparities between cultural hegemony and ethnic heterogeneity which have been incorporated by two processes vital for the world system. These two processes are incorporation and nation-building. Incorporation refers to the inclusion of people from external territories through colonization, conquest, and political or economic dominance (Hopkins and Wallerstein cited in Dunaway, 2003, p.7).Dunaway agrees with them and suggests that incorporation is a process that never completes and it always instigate resistance. National building is the other process through which modern world differentiates ethnicities in a structural manner (Dunaway, 2003, p.7). Ethnic differentiation is inherent structural contradiction and it is not going to end in the modern world. Ethnic mobilization poses a greater risk to the world system in the age of transition. Ethnic and racial differences are historic norms which are still relevant. Dunaway (2003) suggests two mechanisms through which ethnic resistance assists in driving this transition. Ethnic mobilizations deteriorate the capitalist civilization project, and increase cost in ways that intensify the profit squeeze. Dunaway identifies certain ways in which counter-power mobilizations of ethnic minorities can push the world system towards transition and bifurcation. She asks when an ethnic conflict can threaten the survival of world system. The answer is when that collective resistance becomes too costly for capitalism to work in the world. However, the resistance by ethnic minorities has not reached that level. Contrary to the expectation, 50 percent of these movements aim to integrate minorities into the prevalent system. However, they also face rebellion from the very bottom o the system, therefore, there are chances for lose-lose situation for capitalism in the long run. Oppression is costly; however, complete incorporation would be even more expensive. Removing the bottom fragment would weaken the foundation of whole structure of this exploitive system. Ethnicity and race still matter and are here to stay. Here, the question arises that what is the future? Dunaway (2003) identifies that even in the period of declining hegemony and strengthening ethnic mobilizations, conditions are not going to get any better for minorities of the world in immediate future. Existing degradation and over-consumption of the world ecosystem will continue. Disarmament is not an option in the system, therefore, elites and privileges in the periphery and semi periphery of the world will continue to oppress indigenous people and minorities of the world in a violent manner. In the due course, these prevalent trends will reach a threshold, and after a great turbulence, a new world will emerge. Until then, the race and ethnicity will continue to matter. Works Cited Bamshad,M.J., and Steve,E.O.2003. Does Race Exist? [Preview].,[online] Available at: [Accessed 22 March 2013]. Brett, S.L., 2002. Post-race/post-politics? Activist Intellectualism and the Reification of Race. Ethnic and Racial Studies 25 (4), pp. 552-675. Bulmer, M., and Solomos, J.2004. Researching Race and Racism. London: Routledge. Dunaway.W.A., Ethnic Conflicts in the Modern World System: The Dialectics of Counter-Hegemonic Resistance in an Age of Transition.[online]. Available at: < http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol9/number1/pdf/jwsr-v9n1-dunaway.pdf> [Accessed 24 March 2013]. DeAngelis,T.,2008. A Fresh look at Race & Ethnicity., [online] Available at : [Accessed 23 March 2013]. Immanuel, W., 1983. Historical Capitalism. London: Verso Press. Knowles,C.n.d., Theorizing Race and Ethnicity- Contemporary Paradigms and Perspective.[online].Available at: < http://www.gold.ac.uk/media/theorizing-race-ethnicity.pdf> [Accessed 23 March 2013]. Krieger N.,n.d. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I, ed.2000. Social epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.36–75. Krieger,N.,2002.A Glossary for Social Epidemiology, Part II., [online]Available at: [Accessed 23 March 2013]. Read More