Confusion between Race and Ethnicity - Essay Example

Race and Ethni Race and ethni are words most commonly confused and used interchangeably, yet both have different meanings. Race is referred to as the difference in skin color, religious preference, nationality and even humanity. Race is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, eye shape or other subjectively selected attributes. Whereas, ethnicity applies to cultural characteristics unlike race, and is the basis for understanding concepts between two people of different "kinds." The theories that claim that racial or ethnic groups are inherently inferior or superior and entitle some to dominate and to eliminate others, whom they consider inferior on the basis of racial discrimination, are totally contrary to moral and ethical principles of humanity. The identity based on environmental, cultural or historical diversity should have no effect on the fact that human beings can and may live differently. All peoples of the world possess equal faculties and can attain the highest levels of intellectual, technical, social, cultural, economical and political development. The difference between the achievements of the people are entirely attributed to geographical, historic, political, economic, social and cultural factors and by no means should form the basis of rank-ordered or classification of peoples of different races. All human groups no matter what their ethnic origin contribute according to their own genius towards the progress of civilization and culture. Racism and racial prejudice have afflicted the world in ever-changing form. By continuing legislative provisions and administrative practices which are contrary to the principles of human rights, contempt and injustice continues to prevail for certain individuals and groups in a society. An understanding of the racial issue facing America needs to be viewed in a historical context. The African Americans arrived as slaves, shackled in chains and their social status was defined by their captivity. They were regarded as beings of inferior order and altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either socially or politically. They were deprived of the rights the white man was bound to enjoy and were considered by some as lawful to reduce them to slavery for their benefit. The criteria by which the social worthiness of individuals is judged and discriminations made are class, caste and the cultural history i.e. the legacy of slavery on race relations as in the case of blacks. The ways in which inequality is institutionalized or the ways by which the socially defined categories of person are rewarded unequally for their social contribution, is by ignoring the talents and abilities of individuals. The targeting and mistreatment of ethnic minorities has been a recurrent theme in the history of the modern world. The ethnic cleansing practiced by the Serbians in Bosnia is a recent example and the systematic massacre of the Jews by the Nazis in the Second World War even to this day, is considered a heinous crime by the whole world. Even some European countries have demonstrated very high levels of intolerance, especially towards immigrants of color who have entered their workforce in recent decades. The society we all live in, is an organic system in which various components work together to contribute to the health of the whole system and some of these systems are more important for the survival of the system as compared to others. Functionalism relies on the metaphor that society is a body or a living system. (Rigney 2001, p. 17) Just as a human organism consists of many parts like the brain, heart, kidneys and lungs etc. which work together for the survival of a person, in the same way the society also consists of multiple cooperative components. Functional analysis proceeds not by examining the details of specific interaction but by looking at the society as a whole and determining how it maintains itself. When some institutions or patterns exist, it is assumed that they probably serve some good purpose. When functionalists consider the ubiquity of social deviance, e.g. they observe that the positive note the inappropriate behavior plays, in maintaining the health of the societies. By prompting outrage in others, the deviant can clarify and reinforce social norms while at the same time strengthening the sense of a community of a group. An imbalance between the rich and the poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of all republics. The American society has always been enriched by its waves of immigrants each of whom had begun a new life on equal footings. But the role of these minorities towards their contribution in social development is based on functionalism. From the sociological point of view, when functionalist Davis and Moore (1945) talk about the topic on inequality and economic imbalance in the society, same sort of analysis occur. These authors focus on occupational stratification and explain that the reason why the society tends to give unequal rewards or income to different positions that comprise its social structure e.g. why do judges, doctors and computer scientists make more money and gain more respect than garbage collectors and migrant farm workers The answer is that some positions are more important for the survival of the society than others. These positions require education and much talent. But with limited potential positions, individuals need to be encouraged to acquire the training and develop the capabilities that are needed. Higher level of reward is thus given to occupations like law and medicine as they require a large investment of time, money and effort. Thus the society fills its most important jobs with the most capable people. As in any other society of the world, the American society too at times is accused of not providing its citizens, especially the minority immigrants with equal opportunities in the job sector. Race and ethnicity here too has become the determining factor in who gets white-collar and blue-collar jobs. In order to improve employment opportunities for the racial and ethnic minorities, during the past few decades, an affirmative action has been used for government contracts, policies related to hiring as well as promotional decisions, both in public and private sectors. Many employers have embraced this action as a good business practice because it gives them a chance to tap into larger and more diverse pools of talent. It also facilitates a wider customer base. Such firm actions have always been a controversial subject and have been attacked legislatively and legally and its supporters agree that this practice should be considered temporary and not be considered by the affected groups as an entitlement. With improved employment policies, there has been a reduction in poverty and an overall improvement, especially at the higher economic levels. They have now come closer to the wage parity with whites. At least partially, as a result of this affirmative action, the African Americans achieved clear gains in the ranks of many occupations but the overall improvement in the wage gaps between the blacks and whites has been stagnant for some time. Therefore, it's not surprising that the Hispanic and blacks are more likely to believe that discrimination is still there to job based preferences. The blacks and other minorities remained segregated from many mainstream institutions like the military, until after the Second World War. Housing segregation is another social issue having its roots in racism and inequality. This segregation is not a result of choice or finances but prejudice towards minorities, where the blacks suffer the greatest. Prejudice and discrimination excludes individuals and groups from full participation in society because of their ethnicity, race or religion. Prejudice, an attitude and discrimination, a behavior are distinct phenomena, which reinforces or creates social and economic inequality. Discrimination and prejudice remains the best explanation for racial housing segregation in the U.S metropolitan areas. Studies show that white hostility against the blacks and institutional discrimination against black homebuyers was the main contributing factors for their suffering. The reason for the racial groups and minorities living together was not based on the fact that they could not buy or rent houses or apartments in white neighborhoods. From the sociological point of view the theory of conflict adopts the metaphor "society as war." From this perspective, the social realm is "a figurative battlefield upon which contending social factions struggle for control of scarce resources, such as wealth and power."(Rigney 2001 p. 67) Conflict theorists look for competing interest groups, exploitation and struggle. Class, race and gender are the principal factors that shape "who gets what," not the unconscious operation of a harmonious social system. The 'conflict theorists' divergent metaphor; accordingly lead them to criticize the functionalist theory of David and Moor's formulation on many counts. The conflict theorists argue that unequal wages may have to do more with elite dominating their workers, than with talent, training or functionalist importance. A few may even highlight the fact that some people may earn more money, primarily because they were born white or male or the upper class and thus consider it their right to live in the type of surroundings and settlements they chose appropriate to their class. In 1991 a study carried out by the National Academy measured this discriminatory practice very methodically and showed that the real estate industry excludes prospective minority purchasers. The reason being, that the middleclass white homeowners are fearful of any factor that might adversely affect the value of their principle asset and thus residential segregation persists. The African American is the only minority group to ethnically dominate the neighborhoods they reside in, and this segregation is not economically based. Studies show that affluent blacks are more segregated than the poorest Asians and Hispanics. The black house seekers rather than encountering "white only" signs are now facing another process of subtle exclusion by being systematically shown, offered and invited to inspect far fewer homes as compared to qualifying white buyers. The result is that their access to substantial urban housing is reduced. Although the attitudes towards racially mixed neighborhoods have changed, still this has not helped in achieving meaningful goals in reducing residential segregation. Many of the issues which are presently important to racial and ethnic minorities are issues faced by low income individuals. As a result they do not generally have access to quality education. Certain reforms in the past have had a substantial impact on African American high school drop-outs and an improvement in the ones who attend college. In 1996 California voters narrowly passed an initiative to end affirmative action practices in higher education, the decision showing a widely divided opinion between races on this issue. But in 2003 the Supreme Court upheld a standard which used race as a major factor in determining admission policies at public universities. Along with other changes there has been a change in the political arena too and many blacks have been elected to important posts in the government. These legislative reforms have been implemented to allow more participation and representation of minority leaders in the running of the government. These representatives of ethnic and racial minorities can now voice their opinion when the leaders are trying to adopting certain policies to run the country. In order to rectify the past racial injustices over the decades, race is still a crucial aspect of the American society with policy implications throughout the governmental system. The sociological aspect related to inequalities of class and race, may be analyzed as unnecessary and unfair by some, and also exploitive between rival groups in the society. Although some might question, how much positive social reform has come from this research (Cancian, 1995,) and a few might deny that inequality has become one of the central organizing themes of the discipline and that the conflict theory is sociologists' perspective of choice. (Kerbo1991; Shapiro 1998) Racial issues have primarily been associated with black Americans, but a new wave of immigrants during the past few decades consists mostly of Hispanic and Asians. The legacy of racism in the American society is so deep rooted that it cannot be cured and curbed in a single generation. Racial tension has been created resulting from integration and these tensions have been expressed visibly in a series of racial riots. The current wave of immigration to the United States includes people of color, especially Hispanic. According to the current population projections, by 2050, the non-Hispanic whites will constitute a bare majority of the population and poverty in endemic in both the blacks and Hispanics. Studies have shown that police regularly use the race of a person in determining individuals who they suspect may be engaging in suspicious activities. This practice is widely known as "racial profiling." The critics of racial profiling portray that under this practice, the police stops, question and even search people solely on the basis of their race. Those justifying this practice indicate that race is not the only indicator of suspiciousness but a factor that will make a black person far more likely to be detained. The mass media has contributed mightily to improve and otherwise, the cross-racial perceptions between blacks and whites, particularly in its portrayal of athletes. With far more frequency, African Americans who have become successful athletes are not radically stereotyped, but are admired for their skill and human qualities. It is not at all surprising that the African Americans cherish this aspect of their progress in the American society. From this perspective one is forced into referring to the most controversial public trials of figures like O.J. Simpson, Stanley Tookie Williams, Michael Jackson and many more, where racism, their social status and class by no means played a vital role. It also explains why the trial of O. J. Simpson, one such icon, was a bitter experience for black Americans. A "racially conscious etiquette" which forbids racially derisive speech has emerged particularly among college educated Americans in most areas of the country. The O. J. Simpson trial was a media sensation and news broadcasts were allowed to give live coverage of the verdict. The people have mostly looked at the American society through the prism of this case, saw the racial divisions, seen access to the judicial system, been helped by extreme wealth. The trial had a bad reflection on the American Justice system. People believed that there was more show biz than the search for truth and justice and the verdict was called "A Farce" by many. They believed that what was on trial was racism in the US. Many think that the judicial system like the other social institution is infected with racism and other forms of bigotry. A study investigated the factors which may have led the jury in the O. J. Simpson criminal trial to an acquittal verdict. The black and white jurors read the transcript of a murder trial which varied the defendant's race (black or white) and celebrity status (high or low). The results suggest that the verdict of this trial was likely to have been more influence by race rather than his celebrity status. But some believe that the Simpson trial proved that the basic issue in the American society is class and not race. He being a wealthy man was able to manipulate the legal system and literally get away with murder. In its own way the trial was a stark reaffirmation of the class principles, values and ideology, which governs the society. On the other hand, Stanley Tookie Williams who was executed shortly after midnight Monday, December 12, 2005, was the cofounder of the notorious street gang. He spent 24 years on a death row after being convicted for four murders. Stanley 51, was executed by a lethal injection, but he maintained his innocence up until his death. During this period he became a nominee for the Nobel Peace Prize, children's author and a vocal advocate against gang violence. William and his supporters say that the trial was infused with racism because three African American were removed from the jury. Most people still believe that he was innocent. The few discriminatory aspects discussed related to racial, ethnic and many such other issues are not only a problem faced by the American society. Throughout history and throughout many cultures and countries, discrimination based on race, religion, gender and social standing has been evident. However, one of the most severe and most long lasting cases of discrimination is found in India, where the caste system is one of the worst tools ever to be used for discrimination. Thus by looking at the different perspectives of the social life and society we conclude that when people talk about discrimination, prejudice and inequality, based on racism, ethnicity class and caste, there are sociological aspects too, that need to be taken into perspective. People cannot just interpret and recognize reality the way they want to because, the physical and social world out there is obdurate. All individuals and groups have the right to be different or consider themselves different and to be regarded as such. However, under any circumstance, should this diversity of lifestyle and the right to be different, serve as a pretext for racial prejudice. Bibliography Cancian, Francesca. 1995. "Truth and Goodness: Does the Sociology of Inequality Promote Betterment" Sociological Perspectives 38:339-56 Cromwell, O Cox. 1948. Caste, Class & Race: A Study in Social Dynamics. Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York. Davis, Kingslay and Wilbert Moore. 1945. "Some Principles of Stratification." American Sociological Review 10: 242-249. Race & Ethnicity Go to the website here: http://www.usatoday.com/news/index/nns212.htm Herbo, Harold R. 1991. Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical and a Comparative Perspective, 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rigney, Daniel. 2001. The Metaphorical Society: An Invitation to Social Theory Lanham. MD: Rowan & Littlefield Shapiro, Thomas M. 1998. Great Divides: Readings in Social Inequality in the United States. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co. Read More