Female Genital Mutilation - Research Paper Example

? Female Genital Mutilation Female Genital Mutilation Introduction The term ‘female genital mutilation’ (FGM), sometimesreferred to as female genital cutting or female circumcision, is a cultural practice in which the external female genitalia are partially or completely removed. The World Health Organization defines female genital mutilation as “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons” (WHO, n. d.). The genital cutting process is generally performed on girls following a few days after the puberty period. Although this practice may take place in hospitals, no scientific procedures like anesthesia is used for the genital cutting process. Generally, this cultural practice is performed by a traditional circumciser using equipments like knife, razor, or scissor. According to WHO reports, this cultural practice is widely observed in many African regions and some parts of the Middle East, Europe, North America, and Australasia. WHO reports also estimate that nearly 100-140 million women and girls have become the victims of this practice, and among them, 92 million victims were from Africa (WHO). Undoubtedly, female genital mutilation is a vicious cultural practice that has far reaching social, physical, and ethical consequences. Classification of Female Genital Mutilation The process of female circumcision is classified into three major categories such as Types I, II, and III. A female genital cutting is considered as Type I if the process involves removal of the clitoral hood, or partial or complete removal of the clitoris. The Type II is also known as excision, which represents the process of complete or partial removal of clitoris and inner or outer labia. In contrast to Type I & II, Type III female genital mutilation indicates a process by which all external female genitalia are removed and this process is commonly referred to as infibulation or pharaonic circumcision. In this process, both the inner and outer labia are cut away with or without the removal of clitoris. Once this process is completed, the girl’s legs are tied from hip to ankle for nearly 40 days for healing the wound. The labial tissue is bonded due to the immobility of legs and which in turn leads to the formation of a wall of flesh across the vulva. A twig or rock salt is inserted into the wound in order to create a small hole for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. Matwasat is another form of Type III where the vulva is stitched and a relatively bigger hole is left. In addition to these, there is a Type IV female circumcision which reflects a variety of procedures collectively. According the WHO, procedures like pricking, piercing, and cauterization performed on female genitalia for non-medical reasons constitute the Type IV. Purpose and Religious Reasons According to FGM supporters, social, economic, and political reasons justify this cultural practice. As Rossem and Gage (2009) point out, people who argue in favor of GFM believe that this process would support the empowerment of girls and provide girls with better marital life. FGM supporters also hold the view that this process would contribute to their families’ prosperity and good name. In some groups like Masai community, FGM is considered to be the reflection of a girl’s growth into womanhood and the beginning of a girl’s sexual debut. Another major intention of this cultural practice is to limit women’s sexual desires and thereby keep them away from premarital sexuality. In many groups, women who are not undergone the FGM procedures are perceived as dirty and hence they are treated very badly. Some superstitions also support the need for female circumcision. As per the ‘Female genital cutting fact sheet’, Some FGM supporters misbelieve that the clitoris will continue to grow as time goes by and hence it should be necessarily removed; and another major misconception is that the external genitalia are unclean and this situation may result in the death of an infant during the time of delivery (womenshealth.gov). Most of the parents supporting this practice are not aware of the scientific sides of FGM. They strongly believe that FGM is a part of their daughters’ upbringing. Although some communities claim religious support for this practice, no religion stands for FGM actually. FGM is not suggested by any religion, but religious leaders. It is seen that some Islamic, Christian, and Jewish communities support the practice of FGM on their girls. Even though Islamic and Christian religions try to protect children’s rights, some people still argue that religious teachings insist the practice of FGM. Studies indicate that Muslim population groups in countries like Ethiopia, Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Senegal, Benin, and Ghana are more vulnerable to FGM practices whereas FGM is more prevalent among Christian groups in countries like Nigeria, Tanzania, and Niger. Health consequences of FGM In many African regions and some other parts of the globe, female circumcision is still performed by traditional practitioners without using anesthesia and sterile cutting devices. The female genital cutting process involves immediate as well as late health complications. The chance of immediate complications will be higher if FGM is practiced in traditional ways without any access to proper medical care. Under such circumstances, the procedure may be extremely painful and a bleeding complication may lead to the girl’s death. Since unsterile cutting equipments are used under traditional FGM practices, the procedure can sometimes result in the transmission of HIV and hepatitis. Urinary and wound infection, acute urinary retention, tetanus, and septicemia are some other immediate complications of FGM. As UNICEF report indicates, the accurate data of death from FGM are not available because FGM related fatalities are rarely reported or few such records are kept. The immediate FGM related fatality rate due to complications like hypovolemic shock and infection is estimated at 10%. Late complications may vary according to the type of FGM performed. Researchers indicate that scars and keloids formation can result in obstruction of the urinary and genital tracts. Urinary tract complications may include damage to urethra and urinary bladder whereas genital tract complications often represent vaginal and pelvic infections and infertility. Conditions like hematocolpos and hematometra may occur as a result of the complete obstruction of the vagina. Pelvic pain, formation of epidermoid cysts, and neuroma formation are other major late complications of FGM. More extensive genital cutting procedures may cause troubles in pregnancy and increase women’s risk for obstetrical issues. In case of women who are affected from vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae, it is very difficult to collect clear urine samples and diagnose for certain conditions like preeclampsia as part of the prenatal care. Medical practitioners point out that cervical evaluation cannot be performed effectively on women with Type III FGM. They also indicate that “third degree lacerations and emergency caesarean section are significantly more frequent in the group of women with FGM/C than in the control group” (Abdulcadir, Margairaz, Boulvain & Irion, 2011). Medical data indicate that FGM increases the rate of neonatal mortality. According to the WHO estimate based on the study conducted on 28,393 women in Burkina Faso, Kenya, Ghana, Senegal, Nigeria, and Sudan, FGM causes the death of additional 10-20 babies per 1000 deliveries (as cited in The Lancet, 2006). In addition, this process has adverse psychological impacts on many women who do not practice FGM and are compelled to live in an outside society (apart from their traditional circles). Some reports reflect that women who undergo FGM are likely to experience sexual dysfunction and/or dyspareunia in future. Some researchers strongly argue that the high prevalence of AIDS in some parts of the African regions can be linked to FGM practices. Social and ethical consequences of FGM Undoubtedly, FGM practice violates a girl’s personal rights as this procedure is performed forcibly without the girl’s consent. Evidently, this practice does not respect the girl’s autonomy. During this boorish practice, a girl experiences possibly the most excruciating pain she would encounter ever, because it is performed by untrained individuals in an unscientific manner. Studies conducted in this field unanimously argue that FGM has no positive benefits. Even though many population groups practice FGM for their girls’ better marital life, this procedure actually destroys a girl’s life. Clinical psychologists opine that women who have undergone FGM are less likely to enjoy sexual intercourse completely as they may experience flashbacks of immense pain during the times of intercourse. As a result of the emotional trauma, FGM victims often find it difficult to share their feelings and emotions to others. Hence, many social workers and other interest groups strongly claim that FGM practice constitute suppression of human rights. WHO, United Nations Commission on Human Rights, and several African and Asian nations consider FGM as inhumane practice and therefore they insist that collaborative effort is essential to address this issue. The WHO states that FGM is a violent act against a girl because this procedure may cause serious physical and mental problems throughout her lifetime. The American Medical Association asserts that FGM infringes the essential principles of medical ethics because it is practiced without the consent of the girl on whom it is performed. In some civilized societies like Europe also, physicians are asked to perform this cultural practice even though it has no medical value. This situation causes an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners because they cannot simply say no to FGM due its cultural value. Even though FGM is banned in several African, Asian, and European countries, reports indicate that this practice has not been completely eliminated in those regions. According to Elasayed, Elamin, and Sulaiman; since a girl will be legally a minor during her puberty period, her mother gives the FGM consent and hence she acts as the proxy decision maker. A proxy decision maker (here mother) does not have the right to impose her values and perspectives on her little daughter. In other words, a proxy decision maker does not have the right to use her values and norms to harm others. Here, a mother needs to do what is in the best interests of her daughter. As Elasayed, Elamin, and Sulaiman (2011) point out, one of the major arguments of the FGM supporters is that FGM practice is helpful to reduce sexual arousal in females and hence this process preserves girls’ chastity. These people are not aware (or they conveniently forget) that female sexual arousal is regulated by hormonal activities and the nervous system. In addition, a girl’s personal value system is based on reasoning and not physical features; and hence, such method of behavior improvement and sexual control are unethical (Elasayed et al, 2011). Evidently, FGM restricts a woman’s right to maintain her social role and to lead a healthy sexual life. Recommendations In order to root out the evils of female genital cutting, extensive public enlightenment and community-wide awareness programs are necessary. Community meeting is a potential advisable strategy to change people’s thoughts and perceptions toward FGM. Those community meetings must involve entire community groups including girls, boys, women, and men. It should involve activities like male-female discussions, cross-generational discussions, awareness theatre shows, and community declarations. In addition, better education is essential to eliminate evil practices like FGM. Reports indicate that education can have great influence on people’s attitude toward FGM because well educated people will be aware of the serious health complications of this issue. Since FGM is a culturally and religiously sensitive issue, faculties from those areas have to be selected to spread the awareness against FGM. In addition, developing substitute rituals that do not involve genital cutting practices would be a better policy to fight this rude cultural practice. Finally, there should be strict regulations to address this social issue in a more effective manner. In other words, parents who forcibly perform FGM on their minor girls should be punished. Conclusion In total, female circumcision is a ruthless cultural practice that has far reaching consequences on the victim population. In many parts of the world, this procedure is performed in an unscientific way and hence it has many immediate as well as late complications. This practice hurts a girl’s natural rights and makes her highly vulnerable to many behavioral abnormalities in the future marital life. Better education, extensive clarification, community-wide awareness programs, and the promotion of substitute rituals are essential for addressing this cultural brutality. References Abdulcadir, J., Margairaz, C., Boulvain,  Irion, O. (2011). Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting. Swiss Medical Weekly. Retrieved from http://www.smw.ch/content/smw-2011-13137/ Elasayed, E. M., Elamin, R. M and Sulaiman, S. M. (2011). Female genital mutilation and ethical issues. Sudanese Journal of Public Health. 6 (2), 63-67. Retrieved from http://www.sjph.net.sd/files/Vol6N2/Brief%20Communications1.pdf Female genital cutting fact sheet. womenshealth.gov. Retrieved from http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/female-genital-cutting.cfm Rossem, R. V & Gage, A. J. (2009). The Effects of Female Genital Mutilation on the Onset of Sexual Activity and Marriage in Guinea. Arch Sex Behav. 38:178–185. Retrieved from Proquest. WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome. (2006). Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries. The Lancet, 367 (9525), 1835-1841. WHO. Media Center. Female genital mutilation. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/index.html Read More