Gender Stratification and Women in Developing Countries - Essay Example

? Gender Stratification and Women in Developing Countries s Gender refers to personal traits and positions the society places on being male or female. Gender stratification refers to unequal distribution of power, wealth, and privilege between the sexes. All over the world, less value has been placed on women’s lives, and they are treated less equally. This has led to gender discrimination within the household, community, state and in the labor market. In the household gender, discrimination can lead to son preference expressed in female feticide or selective sex abortion. In the labor market, women face occupational exclusion and unequal pay. Lack of representation of women in decision-making bodies and the state has led to discrimination in terms of access to public services. The laws of any country are assumed to be gender sensitive; however, they are a product of culture. In addition, even in cases where there are national legal provisions to uphold gender principles, religious or customary laws take precedence over the national provisions in practice. Gender division of labor determines the ideas and practices that define roles and activities deemed to be suitable for men and women. These ideas and practices are socially constructed, which has resulted to defined roles for women, men, and placement of values on such activities. Roles designated as female are normally less valued than those of men are. Women are expected to fulfill the productive role of child bearing and rearing and household management. In the labor market, as much as women participation has risen; they are still confined to the narrower range of occupation and are concentrated in lower grades. Thus, women in the labor market earn less than men do. Women productive roles have been ignored and undervalued particularly in the informal sector. Culture defines the distinctive pattern of ideas, norms, and beliefs that characterize the way of life in a society. Gender ideologies are culturally determined, and these define rights and responsibilities of male or female. They influence access to and control over resources. Culturally determine gender ideology often reinforce male power and in the process bring about the idea of women’s inferiority (Reeves, & Baden, 2000). Gender inequality exists when women or men enjoy a large share of some valued commodity like education, long life, and power unequally. Women in few domains, like life expectancy have an advantage over men. Investing in human capital is fundamental in reducing poverty. Women in developing countries, however, receive less education than men do. Additionally men enjoy far more employment opportunities than women do. Any efforts to eliminate poverty will show results if the issue of gender stratification is addressed. In South Asia, for example, men have twice as many years in school than women. Women in Sub-Saharan Africa obtain land rights only through their husbands. If the marriage fails or the husband dies, the land reverts to the in laws. In parliament, women account for only ten percent of the total seats. In India, where women are highly educated, some to the level of a master degree, most of them become homemakers (Sharma, n.d). In Africa and the Arab world, Millennium Development Goal number three, promoting gender equality and empowering women is perhaps the most important. The method to achieve this is to eliminate gender disparity in education particularly primary and secondary education. In economic theory, education is a significant factor of human capital and has a positive co-efficient on the production function. Lower education levels translate in to lower human capital. Therefore, in theory there is a direct effect of between economic growth and female education. Highly educated females make better and informed mothers and could, therefore, contribute to lowering child mortality rates and malnutrition. Overpopulation is a vital issue in developing countries. Educating women will contribute towards lowering the fertility rates. This helps combat the issue of population explosion and in turn dependency ratios (Baliamoune-lutz, & McGillivray, 2009). Gender stratification in developing countries contributes highly to the poor economic situation these countries are facing. According to Benarot, (cited in Rankin & Aytac, 2006), the expansion for education for girls in developing countries has a strong effect on economic prosperity than does boys education. However, despite the rising levels of education for girls in developing countries, gender inequality especially in education persists. In developing countries, girls are still less educated than boys. Additionally, more boys are likely to attend school than girls. Selective educating of children is a common family practice in most developing countries. Cultural attitudes and beliefs that privilege male over females cause the wide gender disparities in education attainment. In North Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East, traditional gender attitudes towards family and work discourage investment in education for girls. Girls in most developing nations are socialized to believe duty to marriage and family are the most essential values. This is even worse in areas where these patriarchal attitudes are reinforced by religious beliefs. Many religious families especially in the Islamic society see schools as a threat to their daughters’ modesty and thus family’s honor. Furthermore, they believe exposure to modern secular curriculum is going to undermine their traditional values. However, this only applies to girls and women as men are sent to schools abroad to learn. The Middle East mostly the Arab countries that are characterized by Islamic religious traditions, women are highly and systematically disadvantaged. Islam law and the attitude it informs encourage gender inequality. Islamic law impedes women’s right to full citizenship as it dictates different treatment for women. According to a research done by Keddi, (cited in Cherif, 2010) whereas women have limited rights to impose divorce, men, on the other hand, can initiate divorce on any grounds. Muslim men are also allowed to marry non-Muslim women; however, women cannot marry non-Muslim men. Women are only entitled to half of what a man can own in terms of property. In hearings, a man’s testimony is worth twice that of a woman. Since Islamic laws are divinely inspires, they are scared and imperious to change. Leaders in Muslim countries are patriarchal, additionally, Sharia laws draw from patriarchal institutions like male conferred lineages, and laws that dictate a woman’s relation to the state can only be through her male kins who define her status. As women become educated family structures also change, and women develop new identities. Participation in labor force provides women with an opportunity to be financially independent and, as a result, improve their economic standing for themselves and their families. Cultural explanations and religious norms dictate women’s status in Muslim countries. While it is true that gender disparities are because of Islamic law and state policy, leaders in Muslim countries preserve the patriarchal interpretation of the law to maintain power and build legitimacy (Cherif, 2010). Sexual rights rest on the fact that individuals and couples are free to decide the number of children they should get and the spacing between them. These rights also include access to quality reproductive and sex education as well as reproductive health. Gender discrimination deprives omen of these rights. In Pakistan, women are underprivileged not only in meeting their sexual need but also in the freedom to choose their partner. This has serious implications on the rights of these women and access to reproductive health. It leads to domestic violence and increased cases of mental disorders (Ali, Israr, Ali BS, and Jajua, 2009). It is commonly perceived that men other than their partners can only rape women. However, reports show that in Pakistan, 75% of physical abused women, report the abuser as their partner. Marital rape is any unwanted intercourse obtained by threat of force, or when a woman is not in a position to consent. It is a crime in many nations but countries like Pakistan refuse to recognize it as a crime. Another study done in Pakistan, shows 34% of women are physically abused while according to another study, 92% of men admitted to physically abusing their partners. This shows that physical and sexual violence against women in Pakistan is accepted as a norm. In addition, most women view that a certain amount of physical abuse is justified. Reproductive right is not simply the absence of reproductive illness, but also the right to sexual education, right to equality in marriage and divorce and the right to non-discrimination. A study done by Ali, Israr, Ali BS, and Jajua (2009) indicated that domestic abuse is high in Pakistan and women lack various other sexual and reproductive rights. Marital rape is so common to the extent of being considered a norm and not an act of violence. Most these women are unaware of family planning methods; this is the highest form of discrimination yet. When this is not unique to Pakistan, it is more prevalent. Women are seen to be secondary to husbands and even to their male children. In a country like Pakistan and most Islamic countries, infringement of women’s right is a norm and a man’s need should come first. Most girls and women are not aware of their rights and society continues to put more barriers for them on access of fundamental rights by women (Ali, Israr, Ali BS, and Jajua, 2009). Gender equality is women having same opportunities as men. Equal opportunities policies tackle the problem of gender stratification by increasing participation of women in public life. Removing discrimination in opportunities allows women to achieve equal status as men. However, most of gender equality policies are only on paper and does not necessarily ensure equality outcomes. Gender equity, on the other hand, is the equivalence in life’s outcomes for men and women. It requires redistribution of power and resources and recognizes that both men and women have different needs and interests. The goal in gender equality goes beyond equality in opportunity by insisting on transformative change. Gender equity recognizes that both men and women have different interests, needs, and preferences and that for equality to achieve, different treatment for both men and women is necessary. Gender equity necessitates are thinking of programs and policies and takes into account the different realities of men and women. It implies, therefore, that all development intervention and policies are scrutinized for their impact on gender relations. Gender equity goals are considered more political than gender equality and, therefore, are less accepted. Gender needs are prioritized, and shares needs identified by women and arise from common interests. Although they are conceptually different, they are closely related in practice. This should be the beginning of any gender reforms. Violence against women should be condemned, as it is the highest form of gender discrimination. Gender violence is not limited to physical abuse, but it also includes any acts of threat by men or by a male-dominated institution, which inflicts psychological or sexual harm on a woman or a girl owing to their sex. In international law, violence against women is a human rights issue and should not be dealt with lightly. However, prevention of violence against women is discouraged by attitudes that devalue women’s lives and the lack of knowledge by women on their rights. Even in countries that have approved legislation, there is hostility from those concerned to interfere with people’s private, domestic affairs. For reforms against violence to be effective, there is need to train the police and lawyers and even social workers on how to deal with such cases (Reeves ,& Baden, 2000). Women empowerment should be on top of the agenda in fighting gender stratification in developing countries. Reformers must work on approaches that develop ways of enabling women assess their own situation. The goal of empowering women should be to make women active agents of change in transforming gender relations (Reeves, & Baden, 2000). Gender stratification in developing countries; pose a substantial problem to both the development of the society and economic development. In Muslim countries, gender reformist should push for the elimination of patriarchal institutions. This should be done by educating both men and women on their rights. Even the developed countries had to deal with gender stratification and continue to put in place policies to protect rights of women. There is yet hope for women in developing nations. References Ali, A., Israr, M., Ali, BS., & Jajua, Z., (2009). Associations of various reproductive rights, domestic violence, and marital rape with depression among Pakistani women. Pp77. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/ Baliamoune-Lutz, M., & McGillivray, M., (2009). Does gender inequality reduce growth in sub-Saharan Africa and Arab countries? Pp224-242. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/. Cherif, F., (2010). Culture rights and norms: women rights reforms in Muslim countries. Pp1144-1160. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/. Rankin, B., & Aytac, I., (2006). Gender Inequality In Schooling: The Case Of Turkey. Pp25-43. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/ . Reeves, H & Baden, S., (2000). Gender And Development Concepts And Definitions. Retrieved from http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf. Sharma, G., (n.d). Gender Inequality in Education And Employment. Retrieved from Learningchannel.org. Read More