Peer Groups and Street Gangs - Research Paper Example

?Peer Groups in Adolescence Peer groups are social groupings that although not exclusive to adolescence, more prominently characterize this stage in human development – Several studies assert (Berndt, 1979; Britain, 1963; Young & Ferguson, 1979) the high receptiveness of adolescence to peer groups (as cited in O’Brien & Bierman, 1988, p. 1360). Peer groups in their different forms are visible anywhere, as they are natural parts of human interactions, which according to Rubin, Bukowski & Parker (1998) “affect social, emotional and cognitive functioning beyond the influences of family, school, and neighborhood” (p. 571). The peer groups in adolescence impact not only at home, in the school, but in the society as a whole. To better understand this, the following issues are examined: 1) Definition of peer groups, 2) association of peer groups with adolescence, and 3) impact of peer groups in adolescents’ life. Peer Groups Defined Peer groups can be immediately qualified as informal groups, because they are not legally registered and they are not bound by a constitution and by-laws. Instead, their formations and operations are all achieved informally. As defined, peer groups are social groups of people of the same age and status (Brym & Lie, 2010, p. 71). Observably though, there are some peer groups which composition vary in age and status, especially in this age of globalization wherein diversity is the social call. Another defining characteristic of peer groups is their sizes, structure and stability, from which Cotterell (1996) has categorized them as cliques, crowds, and gangs (p. 23). Clique, as the basic peer group in adolescence (Cotterell,1996, p. 24), is an exclusive smaller group within a larger group, formed based on its members’ similar interests, views, purposes and patterns of behavior, exchanging among themselves gifts of friendship, affection or information (Kolaczek, 2008, p. 241). Thus cliques provide the earliest experience and involvement in developing concepts of social norms in peer groups (Cotterell, 1996, p. 24). Although smallest in size, clique is the most intimate perhaps because its small composition allows closer, more personal, and easier interaction among its members. Thus Brown (1989) defined cliques in adolescence as friendship-based group or “interaction-based clusters of adolescents who spend more time with each other than with other adolescents and who tend to share similar attitudes and behavior” (as cited in Ennett & Bauman, 1993, p. 227). As such, interactions in cliques are more intensive and more emotional (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011, p. 324). Some examples of cliques could be a group of students belonging to top ten class achievers that excludes non-achievers or members of musical bands that exclude those are not. Crowds, as Rubin and colleagues (2011) have defined, are ‘reputation-based collectives’ of individuals who are similarly type-casted in ways they all share. Unlike cliques, they are organized more spontaneously and they operate more loosely that members are not that familiar with each other and some of them may not have even interacted with one another. Nevertheless, crowds oftentimes provide adolescence the social status and social identity it badly seeks. (p. 324) Wentzel (2005) has described typical adolescent crowds as, ‘populars’ – academic achievers or delinquents; ‘jocks’ – atheletes or alcoholics, the alienated group – poor academic achievers, delinquents especially the ‘druggies’; and ‘normals’ – average students with no delinquent records. (p. 283) Gangs, also known as street groups, are distinct to adolescence, which Klein (1971) has referred to as ‘the gang age’ (as cited in Cotterell, 1996, p. 31). Gangs are expressive groups that oftentimes attract media attention more negatively, as media more commonly portray youth gangs based on law enforcement data of youth violence (Esbensen & Tusinski, 2007, p. 21). Cotterell (1996) has suggested two criteria by which gangs can be distinguished from other peer groups: First, “the group should be easily recognized by the community and agencies within it; and adolescent members of the group should consciously identify with it through clothing, other key behavior, and assigning the gang name to themselves” (p. 30). Defining gang’s looseness or cohesiveness are matters of debate, but O’Haggan (1976) has a workable suggestion that the structure, age group, and sizes of gangs can be best understood on the several layers of its composition: ‘gang leaders, committed members…, fringe members, and drifters’. For example, gang’s fringes are looser, less mature and younger age groups. (as cited in Cotterell, 1996, p. 33) Peer Groups and Adolescents As described earlier, peer groups are distinct characteristics of adolescence, because according to Rose (2005) this is the stage in life wherein one’s social identity is being sought and established. So, Ryan and Deci (2003) clarifies that even if adolescents remain close to their families, the influence of peer groups becomes greater as these provide them the venue for social identification in going through this period of identity crisis (as cited in Bester, 2007, p. 177). More theories explain the significance of peer groups in adolescence: Piaget has implied peer groups to be essential to adolescence for the development of higher levels of operational thinking that are deemed necessary for the next stage of life -- adulthood; whereas Mead (1934) and Sullivan (1953) have suggested peer groups to be essential in the development of the adaptive ability of adolescents thereby helping them to better fit in the larger society. (As cited in Rubin et al., 1998, p. 574) However, Eckert (2003) has viewed adolescence based on the development of industrial society, asserting that adolescence is in fact a social imposition of industrial society through the institutionalization of secondary education for vocational training, which practically separated young people from adults as they are made to acquire skills needed by industries. Thus adolescence is in reality ‘a result of adult-dominated institutional arrangements and expectations’. Therefore, although it is true that adolescence undergoes significant developmental changes, these changes take place in a given social context to which adolescents react. (p. 112) For example, Eckert’s argument could help one to understand gangs among American blacks as a form of retaliation to racial discrimination so deeply ingrained in English history. Impact of Peer Groups in Adolescence It has long been viewed that peer groups provide adolescents a unique avenue to be developed mentally, emotionally and socially in an equal, intimate, cooperative and mutual manner as they all share a common and confusing predicament. Thus Brym and Lie (2010) have regarded peer groups as ‘a second socialization agent’, which has become increasingly important in the modern age. For one, peer groups enable adolescents to stand independent of their families, as peer groups help adolescents develop their own sources of identity. The immediate and observable impact of peer groups in adolescents can be seen in the physical changes in their appearances (e.g. hair, dress, accessories), in their choices of social activities (e.g. partying, smoking, drinking alcohol, using drugs) and dating. These sudden changes oftentimes result to conflict with their family values, norms, and schedules. And this is inevitable because peer groups are youth-controlled through which adolescents daringly oppose their family’s and even society’s norms and values, trying almost everything in their search for their own identity. On the other hand, families are parent-controlled that embody childhood values (p. 71) like obedience, respect, innocence, and honesty – values that adolescents would naturally violate. For example, in asserting what they want adolescents tend to disregard and disobey their parent’s advice, and to tell lies; as they immersed their selves in illegal activities and sex, they lose their innocence. Various peer groups affect adolescents in different ways. “Cliques are the building blocks of peer society, the anchor for social activities, and the access route for making new friends” (Cotterell, 1996, p. 24). Crowds greatly help adolescents in the conduct of their social functions in a way that these broaden their social networks and influence their relationship with peers (Horn, 2003, as cited in Rubin et al., 2011, p. 324). Gangs, although typically misunderstood in relation to violent juvenile delinquency, remain attractive in adolescents, and perhaps even important to them especially among the marginalized, because observably these give them the strength and status they cannot obtain on their own. For example, black riots that are either led or supported by youth blacks did contribute in the struggle of American blacks against racial discrimination. Furthermore, the several layers of membership in gangs provide an avenue to develop their leadership skills and organizational skills. Peer group impact on adolescents either positively or negatively, depending on the kind of peer group they get involved with. According to Sullivan (1953) friendship, freely offered in peer groups, does not simply provide adolescents ‘a sense of well-being and validation’ that develops and strengthen their self-concept, but more importantly it serves as their safety blanket that protects them from traumatic effects of unpleasant family experiences (as cited in Bukowski, Motzoi & Meyer, 2009, p. 223). On the negative side, among the problems commonly associated with peer groups in adolescence are substance abuse, smoking, unwanted pregnancies, and alcohol use. Ennett and Bauman (1993) noted a plethora of studies (e.g. Bauman et al., 1984; McAlister, Krosnick & Milburn, 1984; Friedman, Lichtenstein & Biglan, 1985; Oetting & Beauais, 1986; Thorlindsson & Filhjalmsson, 1991) confirming the crucial role peer groups play in initiating and maintaining smoking in adolescents. Conclusion Peer groups are natural social groupings most visible and essential in adolescents in various ways. Peer groups in adolescents can be understood both as their venue through which to seek and establish their own social identity and gain their own social status; but more than this, peer groups can also be understood as adolescents’ rebellion against the industrial society’s imposed segregation, and as their security system to protect themselves from the traumatic effects of unpleasant family experiences. Therefore, peer groups in adolescents should be viewed not only as a natural stage of human development as many theories care to explain, but more as an effect and a response to imperfect social conditions and orders. References Bester, G. (2007). Personality development of the adolescent: Peer group versus parents. South African Journal of Education, 27 (2), 177-190. Bukowski, W. M., Motzoi, C. & Meyer, F. (2009). Friendship as process, function, and outcome. In Rubin, K. H. , Bukowski, W. M. & Laursen, B. (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups, pp. 217-231. 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