The Agency of Matter: an Essential Component of the Study of Social World Formation - Literature review Example

? Topic Is it convincing to propose that matter can have agency? The Agency of Matter: an essential component of the study of social world formation. Name/course/institution/date/course supervisor etc can be either here or on a separate title page- could also include your name in the footnote of each page, on the left if you want to. Outline This paper sets out to establish that matter has agency, and that any study of the social worlds may be enhanced by a consideration of the agency of matter. Social Constructivism and Psycho-social approaches will be highlighted to propose that attachment and detachment theory can complement our understanding of the social worlds if matter (and its agency) is considered. Commentary on and illustration of the two approaches mentioned above, and the theory of attachment and detachment will be provided with examples to show the essential role of matter in explaining interrelationships between people and other people, and people and things. It will be proposed that matter can consist of things external to human beings, the bodies of human beings, and even intangible things such as music and ideas. The effect of these on the social world will be examined. It will be suggested that the better approach to a study of social worlds may have to take into account several of the disciplines currently in use. And that any of these approaches could be enhanced by the study of interactions between humans and matter. A short overview of a prevalent situation in current society will be used to propose that a comprehensive study of society may have to rely on several approaches, being used to supplement and complement one another, and that a view that matter has agency is beneficial to any such study. The conclusion of the essay will summarise the main lines of argument in the essay and finally reiterate the contention that matter has agency, and that it is convincing to propose that the agency of matter be considered in any study f social worlds. The Essay Introduction From both psycho-social and social constructivist perspectives, the social world which humans inhabit is created collectively and individually, generated by the socially acknowledged rules of a society, and the thought, conscious and unconscious, of the individual. Collective meaning, individual habitus, personal thought, and social practice certainly play a central role in serving to explain society and particularly attachment (and detachment) between people, and between people and objects. It is, however, essential to consider the extent to which matter, in the form of the various objects surrounding humans, does influence the processes of human society. Thus it may indeed be that “... meanings are not inherent in the rock itself ... rather they are ascribed to it...” (Redman 2008:179). Or that people thus allocate meaning to things and that things have no agency. This essay, though, will serve to argue that the material world – the objects, human bodies, and even nonhuman things – play an important part in the formation of the social world. While it is not possible or expedient to ignore the contribution of the theoretical frameworks mentioned above – the social constructivist, and the psycho-social – it is also not possible to dismiss the significant effect of matter and its agency in the creation of social worlds. This essay will examine the inclusion of a consideration of the material world into an explanation of social worlds. It will also propose that such consideration will add value to a psycho-social or social constructivist approach. Finally, a social issue will be sketched – the perceived “out of control” British youth culture – and a consideration of the value of combining approaches will be linked to this social phenomenon. Agency and Mediation, Attachment and Detachment It is necessary to clarify an understanding of “agency” within the context of this essay. The term refers to capacity to act independently of other factors. Thus a person has agency when he/she is able to make free personal choices (Barker 2005: 448). It may seem that matter would naturally be disqualified from having agency. In the sociological context of this essay, therefore, the personification, or the personalisation of matter will be considered. Also, the human body with its acknowledged ability to “act without thought” will be used to illustrate that physical matter can have agency. Further, both the internal and external, tangible and intangible objects humans are affected by will receive comment and be proposed as things which have agency, even though they may not conventionally considered as purely “matter”. To this purpose, the concepts of attachment and detachment must be explored. It is particularly here that the social constructivist and psycho-social perspectives can be supplemented by the consideration of the agency of matter (Redman 2008: 183). Attachment is “...a bond, a tie that associates two or more elements by holding them together” (Muniesa 2008: 113). It is clear, then, that attachment can be formed through the agency of the material. Matter – either in the form of things, or in the form of other people – does serve to facilitate attachment or conversely detachment. To further strengthen the suggestion that matter has such agency, is the concept that attachment and detachment are mediated responses. Similarly to the way meaning is created by cultural norms, or family values – these mediate the attachment or detachment between individuals and groups within society – matter can also be seen to mediate. The medium through which an attachment or detachment is formed, when understood, helps to explain the nature of the relationship between people or people and things (see Muniesa 2008: 113). Thus the relationship between customer and shopkeeper, blood donor and blood collector, is mediated by the documentation and the goods that have been exchanged: Muniesa clarifies: “Donor card; receipt: these are the kinds of ‘devices’ that allow us to identify whether particular situations are largely on the side of attachment, largely on the side of detachment, or combine both.” (Muniesa 2008: 123). It seems, then, that a combination of at least three approaches, explored briefly above may be necessary in attempting to explain social worlds. And not one of these is completely satisfactory in isolation. The Personification and Personalisation of Matter Muniesa (2008: 122) writes in Chapter 4 of Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds that “When we make a gift, we tend to personalise it ... when we talk about a gift we received ... we usually say ‘this is from that person’...” This is an illustration of the personalisation of matter which necessarily implies that an object can have active agency in forming a particular type of bond between people. The gift given is accompanied by a note, or card to identify the giver; the gift received is tied to the giver, by name, and possession of that gift to some degree remains with both parties (Muniesa 2008: 122). Muniesa lists further historical and contemporary examples of gift exchange to underline the agency of such objects. Indeed, examples of gifts personified in certain cultures by attributing spirit and gender to the objects are cited. Ownership of a gift in other cited ritualised behaviours remains with the giver. In modern societies, also, gifts and favours between individuals establish bonds of reciprocity, obligation and even change the power-relationships between them. The agency of these objects is clear. As another example of objects taking on meaning far greater than their physical manifestation, the western tradition of the engagement ring could serve to illustrate agency in forming attachment or detachment. The object representing the initial commitment of one person to another, and then the promise of yet further commitment in the potential marriage is the ring. The attachment for the recipient of the ring is clear: it is personalising the giver, and the commitment that has been made. Likewise, the giver retains some ownership of the object – it is a guarantee of a future bond which will be created. Obviously, the object could take on agency as the cause of a detachment in the case of a failed engagement. Detachment is similarly mediated by money – be that in cash bills, cheques or even electronic form. An object or service sold for money stops attachment as soon as the money changes hands. Obligations between buyer and seller have been settled by the exchange. The object has been “properly detached” from its original owner, who no longer has any “remaining right over it” (Muniesa 2008: 128). Neither of the people involved in the transaction owe each other anything and the object transacted no longer belongs to its former owner – the new owner has complete right to it. But Muniesa additionally explores aspects of market transactions in more complex situations. Copyright laws, for example, demand that even when an individual has bought an object, ownership is not exclusively transferred to the purchaser. The attachment is not exclusive: the author of the copyrighted object (a book; a piece of music or film) retains some ownership of the object, and a new owner does not have full right to its use (see: Muniesa 2008: 129). Similar dynamic is in play when branded goods are purchased. There is a social commitment from the new owner to “specific rules of usage that will preserve and honour the image of the brand” (Muniesa 2008: 132). The conventional detachment is altered, with the creator again retaining some rights over the object, and a new attachment formed between creator, purchaser and the object. Both attachment and detachment, hence, are able to be mediated by matter. Physical objects external to the individual do determine the social relationships formed between them. It is further possible to propose that the physical nature of human bodies does contribute to social worlds. The Body as Object with Agency The social world is composed of interrelationships between people and things and these relationships form a complex web in which each is affected by the other. The physical bodies of humans must be, thus, affected by the social world, but also have some effect on the social world in turn. The human body and its “habits, practices and techniques” (Woodward 2008: 86) must contribute to forming the reactions, thoughts and behaviours of individuals in the social world. Woodward (2008) refers to the body-reflexive practices (a term coined by Connell) inherent in individuals. The body acts to facilitate or prevent social practices, while it is being affected by the social practices. The body and the social world are “constantly modifying each other in their mutual exchanges” (Woodward 2008: 103). Woodward’s example of the boxer whose body-reflexive practices – training and fighting – become unconscious and inherent in the person’s interaction with the social world is highly effective. This argument is extended to propose that body practices also construct gender – so the boxer becomes an example of primal and superior masculinity in western societies. Or, in another example used by Woodward, the body of a young woman or girl has agency in forming her feminine identity, as determined by the social world. Iris Marion Young’s Throwing like a Girl is cited (Woodward 2008: 97) and Woodward comments (see: Woodward 2008: 100) that women are socialised to experience their own bodies as objects, in addition to being part of self. They are also taught to perceive their own bodies as objects looked at by others – particularly males. It is thus necessary to recognise both the material nature of the body and the social construct it gives rise to – be it a gender role or a social stereotype. The culture of the supermodel is, in this writer’s opinion a case in point. The emaciated frame acceptable in the circles of high fashion is responsible for the continuation of this warped body image; the continued demand from the barons of high fashion for the body type encourages continued starvation in individuals. Models may in fact be encouraged to view their own bodies merely as objects upon which to display other objects – clothing! A social world is formed by the inextricably linked things: the thin people and the demand for thin people. The materiality of the body is very real in constructing the social world, in that it forms the social rather than just following from it (Woodward 2008: 107). The characteristics of the body will influence and even determine social meaning and practices, at the same time as the same body will be influenced by social meanings and practices (see Redman 2008: 178). What people learn about the use and function of their bodies – as women, or boxers, for example (see Woodward 2008 and Redman 2008) – will assist in forming the social world they experience. Objects Internal and External, Tangible and Intangible As illustrated previously in this essay, the active influence of objects and things has impact on the formation and definition of social interrelationships – see, for example, the commentary on “gifts” as explored by Muniesa (2008) and commented on above. With the theories surrounding attachment and detachment in mind, it is evident that the effect of objects not easily defined purely as “matter” also influences social worlds. Muniesa (2008: 118) uses the experience that individuals have of music to illustrate that listening is not passive. Instead, the argument unfolds to reveal that “gestures, actions and rituals” (Muniesa 2008: 120) interact with objects to enable the enjoyment of music by the individual. Thus a fairly universal human experience – enjoying some music – is mediated by objects and devices, as much as by social worlds. Music it could be argued is not essentially “matter”. The relationship between individuals and this object is one which is illustrative of attachment, though. Not only do the objects and rituals surrounding the experience mediate the experience, as highlighted by Muniesa, there is a sense of the individual and the actual music interacting, with the music able to affect the emotions and perspectives of the individual, while the individual is able to influence the music by changing volume or tonal effect through the hardware used. Again, the physical objects – the radio or i-pod – mediate the social world being created, of course. In addition, the music may be the mediator, or have agency, in affecting other attachments or detachments. A particular song may have the effect of representing the relationship between people – “our song” is sometimes referred to by couples to reaffirm the love and emotion that exists between them. Songs adopted by sports teams or sports fans could also be argued to have agency. The singing of the song prompts feelings of solidarity and unity in the group; the group changes the performance of the original song to suit the mood of competitiveness and purpose associated with sports competition. Redman (2008) refers to the work of Nancy Chodorow (see Redman 2008: 66-68) to argue that completely intangible things do come to form objects in the human psyche. From a psycho-social perspective, humans give “... personal psychological meaning to persons or experiences ...” through transference (Chodorow in Redman 2008: 66). Also, through a process called introjection individuals take aspects of the external world – objects in the form of ideas or perceptions – into themselves, and thus these objects become part of their internal world (Redman 2008: 64). While it may have to be conceded that ideas or music are not strictly “matter” as this essay has considered it, the things named in the preceding paragraphs certainly have agency, perhaps completely similar to the agency of more physical things. Toward Combining Approaches The social and the material worlds are not easily separated. Each attachment or detachment experienced by an individual must be so unique as to require complex examination and analysis if it is to be understood. It is reasonable to suppose that the agency of matter must be considered in this examination. Furthermore, it is imperative that the possibility of such agency not be ignored even when approaching analysis from other perspectives. For the purposes of this essay, the psycho-social and the social constructivist approaches can be, and are supplemented and complemented by a consideration of matter as having agency. A proposal then, from a social constructivist perspective that those feelings that people regard as fundamental and natural, or normative, in some way, are guided by culture and society. (see Gabb 2008: 35), would take into consideration the influence of objects external to the individual on those feelings. Likewise, the physical body of the individual could be influential in the formation of those feelings. From the same perspective, Gabb (2008) argues that even the most basic of human assumptions about themselves – gender – is brought into existence through specific social behaviours and social organisation. Therefore even a very accepted view on human behaviour – the definition of personal gender – can be considered to be constructed by society rather than a natural or biologically determined characteristic. Given the proposals by Woodward and others, referred to above, on the reality of body-reflexive practices, examining the influences and interactions of the object which is the human body must be valuable in more fully understanding the construction of gender in social worlds. It has already been suggested that objects can be internalised to form part of the internal world of individuals (see Objects Internal and External, Tangible and Intangible above). In a psycho-social approach, the internal interpretation of the external world is essential to understanding social worlds: “... the unconscious is always present in, indeed constitutive of, the social ... the social is always present in, indeed constitutive of, the unconscious.” (Redman and Whitehouse-Hart 2008: 78). Thus the boundaries between psychoanalysis and sociology could be seen as blurred and the idea of internal objects (Redman and Whitehouse-Hart 2008: 77) vital in examining how social worlds are formed. Again, all human experience is complex. The formation of the social world must be examined from more than one perspective, and the value of considering the agency of matter is clear. A Social Phenomenon and Possible Approaches “The glamour and glitz quickly fade into graffiti-laden alleyways, abandoned warehouses with broken glass, tiny apartments lining the loud and busy railroad, and other urban scenes.”(Denee 2008: 1). This description in Time magazine of travelling from the city centre of London to its outskirts is used as an introduction to some comment on the social (or anti-social) behaviour of young people in Britain. A particular area is highlighted: “The housing projects in Wythenshawe…represent an extreme pocket of social deprivation and alienation. But the problems here—a breakdown in families, an absence of respect for authority, the prevalence of drugs, drunkenness, truancy, vandalism and petty criminality—are common across Britain.” (Denee 2008: 1). The article further highlights particularly knife-related crime: “… a problem the government is trying to clamp down on … In 2005, the number of people who were mugged with a knife jumped up 73%.” An interesting account of some of the reaction to this follows: “…the director of My Generation, a charity working with young people in west London … blames bad exemplars such as 50 Cent, Eminem and elements in the ‘grime’ music scene for making the unacceptable acceptable. The Tory leader, David Cameron, responded recently, by calling on Radio 1 to stop playing certain types of hip-hop music on Saturday nights because it was encouraging a knife culture.” (Denee 2008: 1). On the face of it, this phenomenon is evidently, and certainly according to the commentators quoted above, mediated by a particular type of music. Thus it could be proposed that the role of the media here is essential in explaining the phenomenon. Certainly, the individuals and groups involved in creating the social world referred to as a “knife culture” must have internalized the music and received some sort of media “permission”, making this kind of behaviour socially acceptable. From a psycho-social perspective, the interaction between the unconscious and the external world – the media – has produced the anti-social behaviour. From a social-constructivist perspective, it would be possible to argue that the conditions in which economically poorer youths exist contribute significantly to the development of this behaviour (Steckel, 2008: 135). The social world that surrounds them makes it acceptable to behave as they do. The general acceptability of vandalism, alcohol abuse and other anti-social action within their social world would act as a mediator to enable the individual to behave in this fashion. The material object central to this phenomenon is the knife. The attachment formed between the individual and the object is evident. Does the knife have agency? As a form of weapon more accessible that firearms, perhaps, the knife is just a choice to enable the individual to feel secure and powerful. It is also the object that prompts behaviours – if you have something at hand to defend yourself with when you feel threatened you will use it. Status within the social world of the individual must also be dependent on this object. It is acknowledged that the above paragraphs are superficial examinations of a particular approach to a social phenomenon. But they do serve to illustrate the complexity of a particular situation in the social worlds constructed by people. They also attempt to show that a single perspective when approaching any human phenomenon cannot be absolutely comprehensive. Rather, an understanding of social worlds is enhanced by the use of a number of perspectives. Conclusion This essay has suggested that matter has agency. When social worlds are created necessary interrelationships are established between people and other people and between people and things. These interrelationships are often, as has been illustrated through examples such as gift-giving, dependent, and even formed, by the objects they involve. Not only do the objects establish the nature, the duration and the quality of the relationships between the people, they also form attachments between the people and the objects themselves. Similarly, detachments are facilitated by objects, when for example cash exchanges hands for goods, ownership is transferred and obligations may cease or continue – in the examples used such as branding. Further, it is valuable to consider that agency when working toward an understanding of the social world. While many differing approaches can be applied to a study of the social world – this essay highlighted the psycho-social and the social constructivist approaches – the use of just one approach may not provide a thorough or completely satisfactory understanding. With this in mind, this essay has proposed that attachment and detachment theory, and the consideration of matter as having agency can add to a wider interpretation of social worlds, if used to supplement and complement a wider study. It has, however, not proposed that an acknowledgement of the agency of matter is all that is necessary to facilitate complete understanding of the social worlds within humanity – many other approaches, even beyond those touched on in this essay may be invaluable in an effective study. Rather, a combination of approaches to the study of how social worlds come into being may be effective. Unique and specific circumstances may require a consideration of media, cultural influence, the material world, the social world and the physical body to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of a social phenomenon. It was suggested in the essay that something like the changing behaviour patterns among UK youth may be able to be understood with a wide-ranging approach. Nonetheless, objects, both physical and metaphysical, and the material manifestation of the human body, do interact with the social worlds, and this influence is certainly reciprocal. This should not be overlooked. References Barker, C. (2005) Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice London: Sage Denee, K.(2008) Britain’s Troubled Youth in Time Magazine March 28, 2008. Gabb, J. (2008) Chapter 1: Affective attachment in families in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 20-50 Muniesa, F.(2008) Chapter 4: Attachment and detachment in the economy, in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 113-139 Redman, P. (2008) Introduction, in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 2 -17 Redman, P. (2008) Afterword, in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 176-184 Redman, P. and Whitehouse-Hart, J. (2008) Chapter 2: ‘I just wanted her out: attachment, the psycho-social and media texts, in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 51-82 Steckel, R. H. (2008) Biological Measures of the Standard of Living, in Journal of Economic Perspectives Vol. 22, No. 1Winter 2008: 129-152 Woodward, K. (2008) Chapter 3: Boxing masculinities: attachment, embodiment and heroic narratives, in Attachment: Sociology and Social Worlds edited by Peter Redman. Manchester: Manchester University Press: 84-106 Read More