Long and painful journey to transformation: Perceptions and Secrecy of Domestic Violence among Afghans - Essay Example

? A Long and Painful Journey to Transformation: Perceptions and secrecy of Domestic Violence among Afghans Saema Rahmany Alliant International University FOR 7905 November 21, 2010 Dr. Lisa Ware Long and painful journey to transformation: Perceptions and Secrecy of Domestic Violence among Afghans By Saema Rahmany A dissertation proposal submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Forensic Psychology Alliant International University California School of Professional Psychology Sacramento Campus 2011 ABSTRACT Domestic violence has gradually grown to be a social dilemma that affects people and most especially, women from all countries as well as women found in all tribal groups. A lot of reasons account for the widespread of domestic violence. The shift of domestic violence being experienced by all people has gradually moved to domestic violence being greatly experienced by the women folk. There are so many reasons why women suffer the most. Keep in mind that most cultures adopt and practice the notion of male supremacy while others uphold the view that domestic violence constitutes one of the best corrective measures to moralize the society. Whatever the starting point of this intolerable behavior, domestic violence is customary among all cultures of the world either expressly or implicitly. One thing is clear; - in some cultures such as those of the Afghans, it is customary for domestic violence to be “covered up” or “kept secret”. Bear in mind that the basis of this is due to the varying or common attitude through which individuals as well as the entire society perceive domestic violence. The rationale of this study is to probe into the secrecy of domestic violence amongst Afghan migrants to the United States. The study is also projected to evaluate and investigate features relating to differences of perceptions and attitudes, between the older and younger Afghans. This study will appraise issues regarding different regions and their perspectives, gender roles, attitudes towards violence, family repute, family involvement, involvement of governmental agencies (fear of husbands going to jail and a subsequent loss of main source of support), and attitudes toward the dominant culture ( as it relates to seeking services). INTRODUCTION Domestic Violence as a Universal Phenomenon No controlling or single element can on its own, claim for domestic violence in Afghanistan. An assortment of interrelated communal, cultural and educational factors is responsible for the problem. Although domestic violence is recurrent and time and again acknowledged, there exists no reasoning for its prevalence. For this reason, there is and there should not be a latent theory or belief to shore up domestic violence. Domestic violence is a universal phenomenon across cultures. Domestic violence includes but not limited to physical violence. (Velleman, 388) has observed that verbal or vial abuses along with emotional violence constitute significant and noticeable features of domestic violence. Domestic violence is a cause for concern in almost every country of the world. Some of the reasons that account for the prevalence of domestic violence include effects of power struggles, drug induced violence, familial or ancestral acceptance amongst others. (Velleman, 389) has equally observed domestic violence is not gender biased in some developed regions like the United States, although most of the cases have proof of female victimization. On the other hand and in a greater part of less developed countries, those behind gender violence are the males. Domestic violence affects many families in different cultures every year. The foundation or root cause of domestic violence identifies with many different issues including power and control. This implies that the perpetrator will always feel like achieving something from the violence projected. Although many people conceptualize domestic violence solely as physical abuse, emotional abuse also contributes to domestic violence and the psychological impact from the emotional abuse often last longer than the scars from the physical abuse (Catani et al., 169). This will also depend on the scene of violence. S Douki et al suggest that the very wide disparity in occurrence of domestic violence in every country puts forward that potentially variable factors relating to culture have a significant function in ascertaining how domestic violence occurs and the manner towards which it is accepted in the society. Mental Health outcomes Domestic Violence and co-occurring Child Abuse In the United States, it is probable that more or less, forty percent of families that experience domestic violence also experience co-occurring child physical abuse (Smith-Slep & O’Leary). According to studies on children of battered women, almost two- thirds demonstrate considerable clinical symptoms of psychopathology (Grych, Jouriles, Swank, McDonald, & Norwood, 2000). In due course, this result in a circular affect of domestic violence. Those children, who witness physical, emotional and verbal abuse, accept as true that it is normal and they tend to later project this emotionality in their own relationships. Domestic violence has been known to be a serious danger to the physical and psychological wellbeing of a child’s future. Studies have proven that a child witnessing domestic violence tends to experience emotional injury, pain, resentment and humiliation in the future. T Brezina (1998) pp 171-99 opines that the most wielding, though usually unintended, communication that domestic violence sends through to the psyche of a child is that violent behavior is good enough behavior, and that it is commonplace for a more powerful person to make use of force to persuade a weaker person. Therefore, domestic violence experienced at infant stages in life can significantly add to the likelihood of the infant being violent in the future. There are still those who sometimes think domestic violence is needed in extreme cases. But this again has been proven wrong because there is no guarantee that it cannot be extended to physical abuse. Adah Maurer (1981) puts forward in p.22 that domestic violence (which sometimes includes corporal punishment) often "escalates into battering". Murray (1994) p. 81, believes there are no odds that perpetrators of domestic violence will not "cross the line to physical abuse." These children are at an increased risk for developing anxiety disorders (Fainsilber-Katz & Low, 2004). Feelings of anxiety can consist of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and includes activation of the autonomic nervous system (Spielberger & Rickman, 1991). The physiological symptoms of anxiety may include increased blood pressure, rapid heart rate, sweating, and vertigo, and nausea, dryness in the mouth, restlessness, and problems in breathing (Spielberger & Rickman, 1991). This would indicate that many children in every culture experiencing violence may portray these side affects or symptoms of PTSD. This will also lean a heavy hand on the personal life of the child. Living under an unremitting anxiety of the possibility of experiencing violence and actual violence along with degradation, a girl child is incapable of ascending her womanly significance ascribed to her by civilization. Keep in mind that a battered girl has an inclination to constantly live alone – grief-stricken and with sensitivity and emotionally unhappy. Gunnoe and Mariner (1997) pp. 768-775 elucidates that there is little wonder that a foremost outcome of domestic violence experienced at infancy, increasing proportionately with strictness, is anti-social behavior in infancy, and later in parenthood. This traumatic experience affects efficiency in all aspects. As Domestic violence is a universal behavior, anxiety is a universal response to that behavior. The feeling of anxiety is similar in different cultures. It is widely accepted that feeling increased anxiety is normal in any situation which poses immediate physical or psychological danger (Spielberger & Rickman, 1991). In other instances, anxiety may cause sleep disruptions. A study that was conducted to examine the relationship between sleep disruption and domestic violence explored the interconnections between mothers and children, Humphreys et al., (2009), explains that there are interconnections of sleep and no sleep for both women and children experiencing anxiety, who are exposed to violence and abuse.  The study also indicated that there was a danger posed on the individual\s physical as well as emotional well-being (Humphreys, 2009). This can reasonably give explanations why many Afghans are diagnosed with sleep disorders (Rahmany, 1988).  In Afghanistan, children that were exposed to violence, either directly (home violence) or indirectly (external exposure to violence), had experienced co-occurring mental distress. Many children in Afghanistan who were victims of the war trauma were directly targeted by the Soviet Union (Rahmany, 1988). This meant they made the mines look like toys, wrist watches, with bright colors specifically to attract children (Rahmany, 1988). These mines did not kill the children, rather they were made to amputate or disable them in a major way (Rahmany, 1988). These were referred to as “baby traps”, which led to everlasting and severe psychopathology, fear, anxiety within the children (Rahmany, 1988). (Haj Yahia, (1999) and (2000a) reports symptoms of distressing effects on mental health including mental anxiety, depression, somatization and in extreme cases, suicide. Studies carried out by (Cheour et al., 2001) states that depressive disorders in addition to poor medical conditions with 140 married women had a link with domestic violence on the woman. However, Saif El Dawla (2001) still upholds the fact that the issue of silent acceptance or outright condemnation of such vial practices is what makes the difference between every society. Assimilation and Acculturation for Afghan Refugees The process for assimilation and acculturation to new more developed countries was a culture shock to many Afghans (Rahmany, 1991). Many who were professionals in Afghanistan could not pick up from where they took off with regards to their careers; instead their wives worked or went to school and this resulted to role reversals (N. Dupree, 319). This eroded their patriarchal values and beliefs. The truth is that Islam has not to a great extent, made it possible for women to have equal right to play a part in spiritual and worldly interactions and the right to occupation, be it in the public or private sector. It is stated that “And women shall have rights similar to those levied on them, but men shall have a degree over them (Al-Baqara (Sura 2:228). It is further expressed that “Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means (al-Nisa’ (Sura 4:34) The divergence in thoughts or ideologies is over what should rightly be considered the ‘degree’ over which men should have authority over women and the liability to protect and sustain women. Maybe, just maybe, Islam still takes to that school of thought, that men should be responsible for the financial upkeep of their families. However, modernity has reduced this to simple or mere hypothesis. The status of women, by it financial or otherwise, should be equal. Keep in mind that for the simple reason that women can now work in one and same capacity as men, familial responsibilities ought to be a shared burden. Many men will have to learn new languages and receive governmental assistance which they think will diminish their self esteem (N. Dupree, 319). Coming from a dominant patriarchal culture, this led many men to feel guilty about not being able to provide, or be the main source of financial support for their families (N. Dupree, 319). This would lead to major marital and familial issues within the Afghan community, in westernized countries. Significance of Study Patriarchal Attitudes A patriarchal social construction exists in Afghan culture, where the social institute generates and preserves an uneven division of authority between masculinity and femininity. It is therefore trite for advocates of feminist theories to attribute domestic violence to such patriarchal social structures. Within the Afghan community, there seems to be a hierarchal structure that all individuals follow. This structure follows the patriarchal archetype with male members of the family being at the top of the totem pole (N.Dupree, 312). The males maintain the family honor and social status by ensuring that everyone in the family follows the cultural norms and traditions (N.Dupree, 312). This hierarchy has become the integrity of the Afghan culture and has become the predominant code and ways of living (N.Dupree, 312). When an individual breaks from these norms, they are shunned from the family (N.Dupree, 312). This ushers in that concept of male supremacy which to a greater extent, suggests that domestic violence is gender biased in Afghanistan. The Afghan concept of male ascendancy also adds to the problem. The hierarchical or Patriarchal Attitudes give dominance to the men who wield influence in the society. There is therefore, a male tilting culture. It is upheld that men can mete out discipline in a sensible and fair manner. Yet, it is wrongly construed that meting out discipline is always done in a controlled way for the reason that at later stages, people become conscious that this proves not up to standard and are open to sensible corrective manners if such were open to them. Thus, the occurrence of domestic violence in addition to its effects on the mental health of its victims should not be something new in academia and practical life. The thoughts of counselors are calculated to greatly influence what they do with the minds of those they counsel. This study in some way has proposition for counselors and counselor-educators. Another significance of this study is that its outcome can lend a hand to practitioners in enhancing their level of self-awareness on the subject of their attitudes toward perpetrators and victims of domestic violence. Based on this enhanced level of awareness, it can be achievable to build up more successful treatment interventions with regards to cases of domestic violence. The consequences of this learning may help out counselor educators in instructive protocols for counselors connected to cases of domestic violence. Given such information, it is feasible to develop helpful training programs to tackle the issue of domestic violence. Gaining understanding of people’s views on domestic violence is important to build up effective discipline practices, in addition to gaining an objective point of view on any contentious policy issue on the manner in which a state should look after its citizens from physical and psychological harm. The prevalence of physical or emotional violence on loved ones and most especially within the domestic sphere and to some extent, in public domains is a cause for worry to those who mind about the defense of human rights. The manner in which people are treated at home or in public makes known deep-seated approaches to the wellbeing of children who are still to attain adulthood and to adults who are still to give others in the future. These and a lot more are evident of the fact that the entire womenfolk must fight for total and absolute emancipation from customs and traditions which are repugnant to natural justice, equity and good conscience. At present, Heidi Chirugwagom (2010) concludes that women are taking thriving leaps of faith to break away from the fetters of mental slavery that bars them from all forms of attaining equality in social participation. But this great task will only be achieved as long as women join into a unified whole to the “breaking of the glass ceiling”, else, the fight “will remain an interminable task, demanding an interminable labor to let woman’s voice be heard worldwide and her say reach from thresholds to horizons”. Regional and Geographical differences: Perception of Domestic Violence Modernization or westernization is a large leap for a country that has been deeply entrenched in strong traditional values and belief systems. This often calls for the cultural system to be restructured (N.Dupree, 314). Some Afghans, depending on their region of origin, may insist that change is well deserved for the country to progress, while others in more rural areas believe that change will destroy the strong embedded value system and codes that every Afghan must follow (N.Dupree, 314). (Haj Yahia, 1998a; Haj Yahia, 1998b; Haj Yahia,2000b) finds that a good number of Islamic societies take a look of domestic violence affecting the woman as a personal and family issue which ought not be to a matter of public pondering. For this reason, it is erroneously believed that social or welfare control agents should steer clear of the problem. Haj Yahia (1998a; 1998b) specifically found out that this justification was because men and even women have a strong feeling that a woman is always and sometimes beaten because of her misconduct. This sparks a wide range of reactions since Afghanistan consists of several different ethnicities. The reactions to modernization included total defiance, to the side of the spectrum, complete excitement for the change (N.Dupree, 314). This caused many of the civil holy wars against those who sought to destroy the Afghan tradition and value system (N.Dupree, 314). No good reason can solely and on its own advocate for gender violence in an Afghan societal setting. Even though physical as well as emotional violence are recurrent and regularly established, there is no permissible instrument for this. In every Afghan societal setting, the gauge of ‘acceptable’ domestic violence is because of shared customs and beliefs and these appear to be taking a growing movement. WHO-2000 states that there is a significant degree of domestic violence which is silently accepted, and in a significant number of cases, the casualties are greatly suffered by the women. Perhaps, the closeness within which Islamic societies operate makes the issue of domestic violence become visible as a customary issue. The most severe types of domestic violence include physical abuses, though emotional abuses are very visible. Keep in mind that Afghanistan has strong customs with a tough chain of authority in addition to lopsided power relations. Domestic violence is therefore frequently replicated on women and children and such violence of such people is often accepted. Bear in mind that the problem of domestic violence appears to be a longstanding problem and this problem can time and again, be attributed to the irregular administrative and political relations tightly established within the core of every Afghan family, which constitutes the basis of the Afghan society. History of Political Violence in Afghanistan Political violence in Afghanistan has often been geared towards the rights, freedoms and boundaries of women (N.Dupree, 314). Moreover, this discourse has been specifically directed either towards or around what women can or cannot do. That is, the cultural boundaries that women were not permitted to cross. Taken either way, what is agreed upon is that cultural norms rather than religious norms predominate with regards to gender roles in the Afghan society (N.Dupree, 314). This is seen as protective with respect to the integrity of the Afghan people’s traditional values and beliefs – being that family values and moralities are based upon the values and moralities of its women. During these times, there was a struggle within the country to prevent the fallouts of civilization from modernizing their women and children (N.Dupree, 313). What is more to this is that kings that came into Afghanistan to bring modernization to the people were unsuccessful (N.Dupree, 314). During a short period of time when King Ammanullah maintained power in Afghanistan, it was perceived honorable for women to work and get educated. He based his beliefs and values on the fact that the Qur’an also affords both men and women equal opportunity in education. It expressly makes it clear that education in addition to scholarship is fundamental to Islamic faith and civilization. With regards to learning, the Prophet opines that the ‘ink of scholars is worth more than the blood of the martyrs’. The Prophet said “Learning is a duty [farida] for every Muslim, [male and female]” (Authenticated by al-Bukhari). Many women took advantage of the new laws and put their children through school, or went to work or school themselves (N.Dupree, 314). Many successors tried to get into power; but civil unrest broke out and continued for over two decades to fight modernization of the Afghan people (N.Dupree, 312). This was viewed as a subtle attack on the core values and traditions of the Afghan people. Furthermore, modernization was thought to bring shame, dishonor, and disgrace to Afghanistan. As a result, the people fought back and dethroned King Ammanullah who sought to westernize the Afghan women. Due to this reversal of women’s rights, women spent more time at home and as a result become bored and ultimately leading to depression, marital conflicts, and violence at home (N.Dupree, 320). After the fall of the king, his successors also tried to reestablish modernization. They approached the situation from different perspectives. Their approaches to modernize Afghanistan during this time were to remove young children from their families and send them to Russia to get a Western education without influences from culture or family tradition (N.Dupree, 316). This caused uproar from the people and this afterwards led to the call of Jihad (holy war) against the then present government (N.Dupree, 318). Torture In 1988 during the end of the Soviet Invasion, approximately eighty thousand political prisoners had been murdered (Rahmany, 1988). Those who survived either escaped or were tortured and released. Frequently, they were tortured to the extent that they were left with amputations, sexual mutilations and other physically and mental scars (Rahmany, 1988). Rahmany reports that the removal of fingernails and toenails was a common torture mechanism employed by the Soviets. Rahmany additionally states that individuals would be electrocuted in electric chairs, racks or simply through wires taped to their testicles. The Soviets would also request the spouse, child or loved ones to be present during such torture sessions (Rahmany, 1988). These were calculated to belittle and humiliate the Afghan man who was being tortured. A lot of Russian leaders and their subsequent successors upheld the view that humiliation was the ultimate death for any Afghan man (Rahmany, 1988). Later on, when the Taliban assumed control of the country, extremist values and beliefs were incorporated into Afghanistan (N.Dupree, 318). The Taliban took advantage of the core beliefs of the Afghan people, which was that women had an essential role in every family. They were also considered the core of every family. This meant that they maintained family values, honor and pride (N.Dupree, 318). Furthermore, they imposed extreme restraints upon women. That is, women had to wear a Burqa (head-to-toe veil), and were not allowed to work or go to school. When they did go out in public, they were required to be accompanied by a close male relative (N.Dupree, 324). In so doing, they sent a wave of caution to the Afghan people that any behavior that crossed these norms and laws would be met with severe punishment (N.Dupree, 324). Suffering and oppression were not limited to the women. The men also suffered if they failed meet specific requirements mandated by the Taliban. Some of such requirements consisted of maintaining a particular beard length and cleanliness of the beard, manner of dressing, covering of their head and daily attendance at the mosque (N.Dupree, 324). Additionally, children were affected by not being allowed to play at public parks (N.Dupree, 324). Eventually, Afghan men, women and children were stripped from living as they wanted and forced to follow the laws from the repressive system of government or be punished with severe beatings, public humiliation, or even public death and these punishment were often meted out by young children who were certified by the Taliban to do so (N.Dupree, 324). Exile and Displacement The wars in addition to repressive systems of government resulted in many families being displaced. They ultimately sought refuge from neighboring countries (N.Dupree, 318). For over two decades people consistently sought refuge from the political violence that they experienced from the Afghan government in one way or another (N.Dupree, 318). Some countries that embraced these refugees included neighboring Iran, India, Pakistan, and some refugees migrated as far as the United States, Europe, and Australia (N.Dupree, 318). Question and Overview This dissertation will examine, through extensive interviews and self report measures, the type of violence one has been exposed to, or currently experiencing. Additionally, this study will focus on the perceptions of domestic violence among older and younger Afghan adults. This study will identify whether there is a fear or PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder) of spouses being reprimanded by governmental agencies, as was the issue in Afghanistan. It will also study where the strong foundation of domestic violence among the Afghan people stem from and explore other factors/ perceptions/beliefs that are associated with domestic violence among Afghans in both Sacramento and San Francisco Bay Area, California. Study Overview Globally, physical violence by a close partner is the most familiar form of domestic violence with immense personal and societal effects. Towering rates of domestic violence have been found all over the world and most especially in Muslim countries according to an analysis of occurrence studies from 50 countries (Heise, Ellsberg, Gottemoeller, 1999). Conflict and power struggle in Afghanistan has had an unreasonably negative effect on women. In the face of being four years away from conflict and into harmony in Afghanistan, violent behavior – principally domestic violence – seems to increase at an alarming rate. Research has it that Afghans and to a greater extent, women, have put up with the burden of the domestic violence. While the global society still anticipates to freeing and empowering Afghans, it is thought that the solution to the problem must come from within. Afghans have gone through two decades of civil wars. They have overthrown governments, time without number and these have been mainly due to disagreements on how Afghanistan progresses (N. Dupree, 311). On one side of this viewpoint is the belief of modernization and westernization of the country which involved change. And some of such changes have aligned themselves with the teachings of Islam. For example, on the status of women in Islam and on the question of equality, the Qur’an says “Men and women were made equal; the only difference in their worth is related to piety not gender” (al-Tawba (Sura 9:71). This meant that the status of women would be treated as equal to that of men and both would enjoy the same rights and powers. This caused chaos within the country. This led to civil wars and Afghans began seeking for refuge from the chaotic country (N. Dupree, 311). Delving deep into nations such as the United States, Australia, and Europe, where both modernization and westernization were part of culture, Afghans had trouble assimilating to the new rules and demands of society (N. Dupree, 318). Having trouble acculturating, many of Afghan men had displacement of anger, in which they took out on their wives and children (K. Rahmany, 1991). As the generations transitioned from one to another within these developed countries where domestic violence was unacceptable, they began to pick up abusive ways on their families and projected violence upon their own relationships (K. Rahmany, 1991). This is the more reason why it is important to view perceptions of domestic violence and how it has transferred from one generation to another. For this study, it is crucial to carefully examine literature that contributes to better understanding of: (1) Demographics including age, gender, place of birth, number of years in the United States, California, refugee status, number of children, educational level, and employment; (2) History of domestic violence in the United States, California; (3) Life span developmental psychology; and (4) Domestic violence research among different ethnicities. A qualitative research method will be used to review Afghans who have experienced domestic violence. For this study, participants will be assessed as to whether the affects of domestic violence among Afghan refugees are due to psychological assimilation and cultural adjustment in the San Francisco Bay Area or was there domestic violence evident in Afghans prior to arriving to the United States. In the following sections of this proposal the motivation for administering this study will be plotted out. Sections will include: (1) The significance of the study; (2) Magnitude of the study; (3) Methodology; (4) Outcomes and ramifications; (5) Appendices (bibliography, forms, notes, tables, citations). APPENDICES Adah Maurer, "Corporal Punishment," American Psychologist (August 1974), p. 621 Catani, C., Neuner, F., Shauer, E., (2008). Beyond Individual War Trauma: Domestic Violence Against Children in Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. 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