Immigrant Students - Research Paper Example

? Immigrant The United s of America is among the countries with the highest number of immigrants from all over the world. However, the main challenge has been the education of immigrant children, which continues to create a challenging problem for US school system. This challenge is because the country faces a growing and diverse student population. For instance, the population of immigrant students in California rose by 150% in the 1980s. Currently, the state is home to about one-third of the entire country’s immigrant population. Immigration evidently raises administrative, curricular, social, and structural issues concerning the integration of the immigrants into the public school system. This paper seeks to determine whether the educational programs in California are beneficial to the immigrants (Boyd, 2002). To achieve this, the paper uses data from the California Department of Education and a report by Public Policy Institute of California to examine the educational differences by nationality. Contents Contents 3 Research Question 5 Problem Statement 6 Research Hypothesis 7 Chapter II: Literature Review 7 Theoretical Framework 13 Chapter III: Methodology 14 Independent Variables 15 Dependent Variable 16 Limitations 16 Independent Variables 17 Dependent Variable 17 Limitation 17 Chapter IV: Results and Analysis 18 Study #1 Results 18 Study #2 Results 20 Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and recommendation 21 Discussion 21 Conclusion 22 Recommendation 23 References 24 Chapter I: Introduction Immigration has been a hotly debated topic in the US for the major part of its history. In recent times however, the point of conflict has been the issue of bilingual education in the public school system. Most concerned parties have opposed the idea of immediate integration and proposed an immersion program. However, others stick to the custom of bilingual education program arguing that immigrants would face difficulties if integrated immediately into the mainstream classroom with other non-immigrant students (Zhou and Susan, 2006). Yet some remain in their middle ground through dual immersion programs. Despite the difficulty in determining the actual benefits of these educational programs to immigrants, the decision on the next step of action will adversely affect the education of thousands of immigrants in the future. Contrary to earlier centuries when immigrants were mainly from Europe, the current immigrations are from developing countries of Latin America, Asian, and Africa. In the past few decades, people have migrated to the United States to seek opportunities, refuge, and better lives due to the structural changes of the US economy and the challenging world events (Glick and Michael, 2003). Consequently, the patterns of migration across the US borders have significantly changed. In 1950s for instance, majority of immigrants came from Canada rather than Mexico, while the most immigrants in the 1980s from Mexico exceeded those from Canada. The huge number of immigrants combined with the changes in demographic profile has stirred up both public controversy and debate. Most natives of the US believe that immigrants are draining the resources of the country, including employment, housing, health care, and education. As far as public education is concerned, a large portion of anti-immigrants sentiments is most evident. For instance, Californian residents voted for the passage of Proposition 187, dubbed “Save Our State”. The voters’ initiative was a protest by the native residents to protect their social resources from the economic hardships resulting from illegal immigrants (Fuligni, Vivian, and May 2001). The major part of the proposition targeted educational programs that “benefited” illegal immigrant students. The controversy, fueled by media semantics that do not differentiate the difference between legal and illegal immigrants, expanded and spread into other states with high immigrant population. However, that was not the end. The anti-immigrant sentiments and hostility created a charged social context that hinders a logical and coherent investigation by education experts on the experiences and needs of immigrant students in the state. Rather than focusing on the benefits of a diverse student population, the public has a negative impression on them: that they are draining the resources of public schools. In recent times however, research on the education of immigrants in California has seen some significant increase, leaving the researchers with questions concerning the benefit of Californian educational programs to immigrant students (Rumbaut, 2005). Research Question This paper seeks to determine whether the educational programs in California are beneficial to immigrant students. The research addresses important factors such as the educational achievements of immigrants in the state, the social environment affecting their adaptability in new learning environment, and the available educational programs for immigrants. Rather than adapting a purely individualistic perspective, the research analyzes the contribution of the society to the problem. The paper analyzes the current educational policies and regulations affecting immigrants in California (Zhou and Susan, 2006). Problem Statement Immigrant students in American public schools face different barriers in their efforts to succeed academically and adapt to the seemingly fast American society. These two factors of the transitional process are closely related, especially because young immigrants arrive in the US at an age when social acceptance is a major issue in all their undertaking (Hirschman, 2001). For new immigrant students, educational challenges tend to be difficult to overcome especially in regular school settings as many of them come from countries where formal education is minimal, if any. However, it is important to note that each immigrant or group of immigrants comes with its own unique set of needs that require a case-by-case examination. Some of the obstacles that immigrant students face include limited English proficiency, less than age-appropriate education, low esteem and personal trauma, and lack of familiarity with the school system in America. Based on the outcomes of the standardized tests, most immigrants are limited English proficiency. In addition, most of the immigrant students are conceptually illiterate as far as their native language is concerned, or are way above their appropriate education age in their countries of origin. In some situations, many lack any formal education, while others have limited formal schooling with regular disruption from traumatic life events. Therefore, these students require special attention to bring them to speed, to function successfully in the American schooling system, and to succeed in their high school education and other higher institutions. Majority of teacher in the mainstream educational programs are often unprepared to overcome and assess the academic challenges facing immigrant students. According to most educators, such students require special intervention programs to train these students on the basic concepts, as well as provide personal attention to all academic areas (Fuligni, Vivian, and May 2001). This transition process in especially important for older students as their chance of closing the educational gap is proportional to their age. The immediate integration of immigrant students into the American school system is very traumatic: perhaps the most traumatic experiences in their lives. Majority do not understand the social customs or grading system, and do not understand where and when to go for classes or lunch and how to use facilities in school. Over and above all, English, the main language, is alien to most of them. Additionally, they still have the unseen scars of hardship and trauma that most of their peers do not even envision. Regardless of the conditions of immigration, most of the new students are subject to the effects of immigration. At one point or another, these young immigrants have experienced loneliness, alienation, or an undermined self-confidence in the face of the new environment (Rumbaut, 2005). Among the key factor that may produce successful results to the US educational system is building self-esteem and encouragement. Research Hypothesis This research paper seeks to answer several theoretical questions: Are immigrant students less likely to drop out of the school than their non-immigrant counterparts are? Are immigrants more likely to attend college and further their education than natives? Do immigrant students benefit with successful career because of their education from educational programs? Are immigrant students more likely to adapt to new social environments? Chapter II: Literature Review A large portion of research concerning programs serving immigrants students in the United States began in 1970s, upon the enactment of the 1968Bilingual Education Act. Formal research in the field is relatively recent, though a few studies may fall under the scientific category (because of their statistical and methodological soundness) and provides information on whether these educational programs are effective or not. Indeed, the National Research Council acknowledged the limitation of the research carried out in its 1997 review of the research on immigrant educational programs. According to the NRC report, the research suffers from extreme politics, making it intricate to determine program evaluation. In other cases, the researchers seem to advocate for their personal ideological positions, despite the lack of support from conclusions (Boyd, 2002). After the enactment of federal laws advocating for the provision of special programs to immigrant students, native language instruction paradigm became dominant, though it lacked mandate in federal law. Indeed, this was evident in California’s original laws, which mandated native language instruction as necessary, with emphasis on Spanish. However, various California schools faced the need to educate multilingual students, including Russian, Cantonese, Hmong, and others. At the time, developing a bilingual educational program for all of the languages seemed impractical. However, researchers gradually proposed an alternative approach, labeled as the immersion approach educational program for immigrant students. Based on the state policy and federal law, serving English learners has two main objectives. First, it seeks to enhance the English proficiency of English learners. Instructional programs that address the first goal include English as Second Language or English Language Development. According to some researchers led by Woodward and Gersten, ESL programs primarily focus on the usage and grammar without any particular context (Zhou and Susan, 2006). However, these programs begin emphasizing on the use of natural conversation in order to learn a second language over time. In addition, most ESL programs currently join ESL programs with language arts, reading, and other contextual area instructions. The second objective is providing equal access to the mainstream curriculum to pupils. Different educational programs that provide immigrant students with access to mainstream subjects exist. Some educators and researchers argue that providing native language programs may be a more beneficial and effective approach for educating immigrant students. Conversely, others argue that immersing children, particularly with some native support in subject areas, is very effective. The research on immigrant students’ educational programs focuses on demonstrating that one program is more effective than the other is. Subsequently, the education and research communities adapt polarity and often seem to support one educational program or the other. Therefore, this results in a situation where logical and constructive dialogue is practically impossible. Research shows that another method of providing immigrant students with access to mainstream curriculum is through Sheltered English, or Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English. This program does not necessarily seek to enhance the English language skills of immigrant students, but rather theoretically provide them with another component of native language program. Additionally, the program seeks to enable intermediate level English proficiency to possess basic literary skills, as well as provide an alternative method of teaching mainstream curriculum, particularly for subject mattes such as language arts, science, and mathematics. In practice, however, this program occurs differently. Research shows that in 1998, more than 43 percent of immigrant students in California public schools accessed the mainstream curriculum using the SDAIE program, through the instruction was not part of any particular immigrant educational programs (Glick and Michael, 2003). Moreover, these students also underwent ELD programs, thus they did not have Basic English literacy skills. Eventually, some districts began exploring SDAIE and sheltered English programs in their immersion programs as a strategy to avail the contents of the mainstream curriculum to immigrant students. This is attributable to the large influx of immigrant students with varied language backgrounds. The comprehensibility of English instructions was integral to the use of SDAIE and sheltered English. In other words, it was sensitive to the proficiency level of these students (Kao and Jennifer, 2003). Despite the availability of descriptive material concerning SDAIE or sheltered English programs, effectiveness evaluation does not exist. In responding to the rising population of immigrants within its borders, California became the pioneer in developing special programs for immigrant students during the 1970s and 1980s. However, other states have followed suit and instituted these programs (Hirschman, 2001). Nonetheless, there are no records of the number of operational programs in the country. This is because of, first, the concept is relatively new, and most districts are continuously setting up programs, thus making it difficult to keep track of their progress. Second, most schools have established their own programs, making it difficult to determine which ones qualify as immigrant program centers for the purposes of this research. Moreover, most of them do not consider themselves as centers or newcomer programs, as well as the confusion created by the term “newcomer”. For instance, the Rosemont Middle School Language Center in Texas shares some similarities with the “newcomer programs”, but the center specializes in language development rather than including a comprehensive curriculum and other support services. According to a report a study conducted by California Tomorrow, an advocacy group, more than 20 districts have these programs, with 11 opening during the initial five years. The development of newcomer program was a response to the local needs of school districts, not a result of integrated federal or state educational policy. Thus, they lack similar bonds and vary from one another in their structure, student makeup, languages of instruction, educational approach, curriculum, and entry and exit criteria. These variances show the particular needs and circumstances, and the divergent educational theories that led to their initial establishment. Among the common structural differences of newcomer programs, include multilingual versus single language programs, full day versus part- or half-day programs, and self-contained versus school-within-a-school. The settlement patterns of immigrants differ from one district to another, thus each newcomer program has a unique combination of students from different countries of the world. Indeed, some bring together immigrants from over 40 different countries, while others serve a small cross-section of immigrants from a small geographical area (Portes, Patricia, and William, 2005). Most programs consider correct assessment of the needs of the immigrant students as the first and most crucial step for their educational experience in the country. Within the initial week of enrolment, immigrant students undergo a series of comprehensive tests designed to essentially determine how prepared the students can survive academically in the US school system. Some of the tests include native language proficiency, English writing, and reading proficiency, and oral language comprehension and proficiency. Moreover, the programs interview parents concerning the educational history of their children. Furthermore, the centers provide orientation to the medical referrals, health examination, parent information services, and school system. The major components of newcomer curricula are academic content, orientation classes, and English language development. Nonetheless, the choice of curriculum depends on the operation of the center: that is, whether as a separate center or within school campus, or either run part-time or full-time (Rumbaut, 2005). Despite their differences, most newcomer programs structure their curriculum around the language proficiency levels and educational background, thus become more flexible than regular school curriculum. Below are two examples of newcomer programs in California. Newcomer Center, Crenshaw High school, LA, California This center caters for immigrants students from grades 9 to 11. The program is all day, and within the regular school. The major languages in the center are Korean, Spanish, and Cantonese. Additionally, the program uses primary language in English and content classes. Established in 1989, the program resides on the second floor of the Crenshaw High school. This location aimed at making the immigrant students feel physically integrated within the mainstream school environment to improve their positive attitude and self-esteem. Being within the school, the center guarantees immigrants equal access to educational opportunities by giving them an opportunity to participate in other mainstream programs such as art classes and competitive sports. In addition, the newcomer curriculum seeks to assist young refugee and immigrant students to adjust to the new school and language environment by offering them orientation services and specialized classes for about one year (Glick and Michael, 2003). In the past decade, the center enrolled close to 1000 students from more than 20 countries, with the majority being Spanish-speakers. English Language Center in Hayward, California Similar to the Crenshaw High School Center, this center also serves immigrant students from grades 7 to 11. The center serves Spanish, Chinese, Dari, and Vietnamese immigrants. The program uses English as a second language, as well as offering History in Dari and Spanish languages. However, the center is physically separate from any mainstream school, operating half-day. The main purpose for establishing the center was to complement the mainstream school curriculum such that the immigrant students may gradually function successfully in the regular neighborhood schools. As early as 1990, the center had more than 500 students from over 30 different countries and speaking 19 different languages. Currently, the school serves about 50% of the LEP population in the district. The main feature of this program is gradual transition (Hirschman, 2001). In essence, students take enroll in the program until the school decides that they are fully prepared to transfer to regular schools. Indeed, some may even spend eight semesters at the center. Theoretical Framework This research draws upon the principles and aspects of three sociological theories: conflict theory, functionalism theory, and socialization theory. According to the socialization theory of education, the upbringing of children determines their development. For instance, parents who note their children’s interest in education would encourage them in ways that they succeed in academics. According to this theory, parental behaviors affect the development of their children through social reinforcement, interaction, and modeling that either promote or discourage learning. Therefore, the performance immigrant students in school and career success depend on the parental rearing styles of the child, not educational programs (Hirschman, 2001). Functionalism theory draws heavily from the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin. According to the theory, educational and career success depends on the survival of adaptive features and individual differences. In other words, functionalists emphasize on the relationship between the school and the society, drawing questions such as does the program educate and incorporate all members of the society and the functions that the school should use to accomplish their educational objectives. Functionalists emphasizes on the order and consensus that exists in the society, especially the shared public values and social stability. Since newcomer programs focus on creating social awareness and stability for the immigrant children, then functionalism argues that they are indeed beneficial. In essence, the theory reiterates that the disorganization of one element in the social system affects all other elements and creates social problems. Contrary, an enthusiast of the conflict theory would argue that the main purpose of these educational programs is to maintain social inequality and preserve the power of the dominant natives. Similar to functionalist, conflict theorists analyze the functions of the newcomer programs (Kao and Jennifer, 2003). However, functionalists consider the programs as beneficial to the creation and maintenance of an ordered society, but conflict theorists see the programs as a strategy to perpetuate the status quo by separating and dulling the immigrants into an obedient lot. Chapter III: Methodology The research primarily uses secondary sources for data collection. The main objective of the first study by researchers from the Public Policy Institute of California was to determine the educational progress across all immigrants in California. In essence, the study sought to determine whether there were any notable changes on the academic performance of immigrant students in terms of generations. This provides this research with important insight into the benefit of educational programs and their impacts on the academic performance and career success of immigrant students (Zhou and Susan, 2006). The researchers, led by Deborah Reed, examined the second and third generations of immigrants in over ten districts of California. The group collected information from 17 middle schools, 15 high schools, and 5 universities across California during the academic years 2003-2004 and 2004-2005. The total number of subjects was 25,658. Among these, 7568 were in middle school, 8651 in high school, and 9439 in university and colleges. The categories of the subjects depended on age and race, which is beyond the scope of this research project. The researchers classified the subjects based on educational level and race. Furthermore, each subject was required to provide information concerning his or her parent’s educational level and career (Zhou and Susan, 2006). The team then analyzed the data on a generational basis, making a comparison between parents’ educational achievements with that of their children. Additionally, the researchers requested information concerning the educational levels of the peers and their parents. The researchers grouped the data on educational level on three basic categories: lacking high school diploma, high school diploma, and bachelor’s degree. However, the latter encompasses all other educational level from university degree to doctorate. Within the sample selected, the researchers identified two broad categories of source region: Non-western region, including China, India, the Philippines, Latin America, the Caribbean, Middle East, West Asia, Other Asia, and Africa, and Western region, including Portugal, Italy, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Western, Eastern, and Northern Europe. To eliminate inconveniences, the researchers considered individuals who qualified as immigrant students only (Portes, Patricia, and William, 2005). The group analyzed the collected data using SPSS 15.0 and Sample Power 4.0 to fine-tune the statistical analysis. Independent Variables In their study, the independent variables were sex, age, and financial backgrounds. Other independent variables included the social status of the subject’s family, the structure, curriculum, and educational content of the newcomer program attended during the initial enrollment into the US school system. Nonetheless, the research classified the educational programs into two categories: full-time and physically separate from regular schools, and part-time and incorporated into the physical environment of regular school. Dependent Variable The dependent variable was the academic level of the subject and that of their previous generation. According to the design of the study and questionnaires, the researchers requested the subjects to indicate the educational level of their parents or guardians. Limitations Similar to any other research, the data collected from this study was limited. The answers provided by respondents may not be reliable 100%, as they are subject to bias. Additionally, the researchers emphasized on subjects regarded as legal immigrant students, thus eliminating those labeled as illegal. Consequently, omissions on some information concerning the experience of immigrant students and their subsequent academic achievement were possible (Hirschman, 2001). Lastly, the data concerning peers educational level and that of their parents or guardians may be incorrect, as it second-hand information. The other source of information for this research is the data by California Department of Education based on their 2005 survey. The survey covered immigrant students across the middle school, high school, and universities in California districts, covering subjects from both Western and Non-western regions. The total subjects for the survey was 27,827. The main purpose of the survey was to determine the educational progress of bilingual students. The survey also focused on the educational progress of immigrants based on their second and their generations (Zhou and Yang, 2005). Independent Variables For the survey, the independent variables were race, financial background, social status, educational programs enrolled, and age. As the survey focused on immigrant students actively enrolled in regular schools, the age factor was not a major concern. Additionally, factors such as economic status and race were not a significantly consideration as all qualified subjects were classified as immigrant students. Dependent Variable Similar to the other research, the dependent variable for the study was educational level of the subject and the parent or guardian. Limitation The survey is more than 6 years now, and a lot might have changed since then. Additionally, the data collected from subjects is not necessarily correct as it is subject to biases. Variable Definition Age Age in years of the selected immigrant student Financial background The economic status of the subject’s family: low, middle, or upper class Sex Gender of the research subject Newcomer program Educational programs that immigrants student were subjected to during their initial enrollment into the US school system Academic level Refers to the level of academic achievement: high school graduate, high school dropout, or university graduate Chapter IV: Results and Analysis Based on the data collected from the two previous studies, this chapter seeks to evaluate the hypothesis: are educational programs in California beneficial to immigrant students? Both studies analyze the academic achievement of the second and third generation of immigrants to determine the progress that is directly or indirectly attributable to these academic programs (Zhou and Susan, 2006). Study #1 Results According to the researchers, there was a strong intergenerational progress as far as education was concerned. The report shows that all generations for all immigrant groups showed some consistency to acquire more education than their guardians or parents. This is particularly true for the second generation of immigrants born in the US, as well the third generation (Zhou and Susan, 2006). Despite the clear educational progress for successful generation, there were some differences in ethnic groups. At one end, the grandchildren and subsequent descendants of the immigrants from South Asian and East Asian countries, including China, India, and the Philippines, show an incredible 45% of young students attaining bachelor degrees. Compared to the college completion of third-and-subsequent-generation whites, this is 14% higher. At the other end however, only 12% of third-and-subsequent-generation of Mexican immigrants attain bachelor degrees (Portes, Patricia, and William, 2005). The study further shows that there is some educational progress from the second to the third generation of immigrants, though the current progress shows that only 17% of the Mexican immigrants will attain bachelor degrees. Evidently, there is a significant educational gap between immigrants from different ethnic groups. Moreover, more than 28% of immigrants in California are children of immigrant Mexican or directly from Mexico. These findings present policymakers with an opportunity to design and structure educational programs specifically targeting the Mexican immigrant students (Fuligni, Vivian, and May 2001). Perhaps education programs targeting workplaces with low education immigrants may significantly improve literacy, vocational, and language skills, thus improve their family income and the educational opportunities of their children. Another interesting observation is the influence on ethnicity and culture on education perception. For instance, majority of Mexican do not consider education as a priority, rather emphasizing on other moneymaking activities and the low educational achievements. Other immigrants such as Armenians and Philippines regard educational achievement highly, thus the high educational achievement levels. Country of Origin High School Dropout High School Diploma Bachelor’s Degree Non-western region China, India, the Philippines, Latin America, the Caribbean, Middle East, West Asia, Other Asia, and Africa, 9.5% 90.5% 56.3% Western region Portugal, Italy, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Western, Eastern, and Northern Europe 7.6% 92.4% 69.4% All immigrant children (including immigrants from both Western and non-western regions such as Mexico, Asia, and Africa) 8.3% 91.8% 57.6% Children of natives (including native American communities and 10th-generation immigrants) 3.6% 96.4% 58.9% Study #2 Results According to the California Department of Education, the number of immigrant students participating in newcomer educational programs increased by 230 percent between 1997 and 2003. Moreover, the population of immigrant students in public schools who passed through newcomer programs was over 90%. Only a small percentage of less than ten percent of immigrant students enrolled in public schools claim they did not receive assistance in developing English proficiency or dropped from such services. In other words, they attended the regular school system despite their deficiencies. The survey further states that over 15% of all English language learners were fluent-English proficient in 2002. However, the data does not provide a broader context, thus lack important information concerning the duration of participation on newcomer programs, the age of the students and if age is a determinant of the duration of the programs, and whether the immigrants students moved to the mainstream school system after successful achievement of fluency (Glick and Michael, 2003). The method of collection and report of dropout and graduation data by California Department of Education only show ethnicity and gender, and does not provide further information on the immigrant student. Furthermore, the data does not link the graduation and dropout rates to educational programs for immigrants. However, a report by the department show that over 280,000 immigrant high school students received their diplomas, accounting for over 68% of immigrant students (Kao and Jennifer, 2003). Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and recommendation Discussion Based on the collected data from the two studies, the second and third generations of immigrants in California are consistently attaining higher educational achievements than their grandparents and parents. Considering the emphasis of schools and the federal law on educational programs for immigrant students, some of this success is attributable to these programs. Essentially, a higher educational level means more career opportunities and better incomes. The Californian law dictates that refugee and immigrant students are subject to the same educational opportunities available to the natives. Additionally, the significant improvement in the attainment of educational achievement signifies the importance of the newcomer educational programs (Boyd, 2002). Despite the difference in improvement based on ethnic groups, the reported levels are encouraging. Conclusion From the analysis of the research, it is evident that educational programs are beneficial to immigrant students. The programs, referred to as newcomer programs, enable immigrant student to familiarize with the social and educational system of the country before transferring to the mainstream educational system with other proficient and native students (Zhou and Yang, 2005). Essentially, these structural programs aim at improving integrating and improving English proficiency among immigrant students. Drawing upon the socialization theories, parents indeed play an important role in the educational achievement of the immigrant child. However, parents of immigrant children often hold back on educational advice because of lack of proper documentation and work obligations. Additionally, education acts a socialization factor for both the natives and immigrant students. Nonetheless, some immigrants may feel some form of discrimination when subjected to newcomer educational programs. It is practically impossible to integrate immigrant students into the US school and social system without some form of counseling and guidance, as it is a new social environment for the subjects. Therefore, immigrant educational programs are beneficial in four major ways. First, they enable the individual to adapt to the new social environment. Two, they enhance the self-esteem and encouragement essential for academic achievement. Third, the support services and programs encourage the immigrant student to proceed with their education to meaningful levels, as opposed to dropouts (Portes, Patricia, and William, 2005). Lastly, research shows that the difference between the educational achievements of natives and immigrants is very small. Recommendation Since the social and educational benefits of the programs are evident, it would be advisable to emphasize on creating a comprehensive structural program that would offer similar benefits. Currently, different districts implement different educational structures for immigrant programs. Perhaps designing a consistent framework for the program would be beneficial to the state and the country as a whole (Zhou and Yang, 2005). It is also important to sell the benefits of the programs to natives to avoid the possibility of social conflicts. References Boyd, M. (2002). “Educational attainments of immigrant offspring: Success or segmented assimilation?” International Migration Review. 36, 4: 1037–1060. Fuligni, J., Vivian T., and May L. (2001). “Attitudes toward family obligations among American adolescents with Asian, Latin American, and European backgrounds.” Child Development. 70, 4: 1030–1044. Glick, E., and Michael J. (2003). “The academic trajectories of immigrant youths: Analysis within and across cohorts.” Demography. 40, 4: 759–783. Hirschman, C. (2001). “The educational enrollment of immigrant youth: a test of the segmented-assimilation hypothesis.” Demography. 38, 3: 317–336. Kao, G., and Jennifer, T. (2003). “Racial and ethnic stratification in educational achievement and attainment.” Annual Review of Sociology. 29, 1: 417–442. Portes, A., Patricia F., and William H. (2005). “Segmented assimilation on the ground: The new second generation in early adulthood.” Ethnic and Racial Studies. 28, 6: 1000–1040. Rumbaut, G. 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