Effect of Perceived Job Stress on Job Satisfaction among Urban Police Officers - Dissertation Example

?Emotional Intelligence The early writings of Thorndike (1920) first captured the essence of emotional intelligence, by describing people who had “the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls…to act wisely in human relations”, as having a different type of intelligence (p. 228). Leeper (1948) posited that “emotional thought” contributed to intelligence in general and was a part of “logical thought” (p. 20). Gardner (1983) broadened the understanding of intelligence through his theory of “multiple intelligences” by establishing specific criteria for distinguishing behavior that would constitute intelligence. Gardner (1999) describes several forms of intelligence, two of which help establish the groundwork for evaluating emotional intelligence: 1) interpersonal – understanding of people and relationships; and 2) intrapersonal –understanding of oneself and one’s emotions. Salovey and Mayer (1990) identified emotional intelligence for the first time as the “ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action” (p. 189). The most commonly used classification of models in the emotional intelligence literature is the dichotomy between trait (mixed) and ability frameworks of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2000; Petrides & Furnham, 2000a, 2000b). Trait models are based on self-report and/or peer-report assessments, ability models 11 are based on more objective (performance-based) forms of assessment (VanRooy, Viswesvaran, & Pluta, 2005; Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2004). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990) ability emotional intelligence conceptualizes emotional intelligence as a form of intelligence, and is comprised of constructs thought to be generic to the ability domain (ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions). In contrast, trait emotional intelligence refers to a conglomeration of emotion-related self perceptions and dispositions assessed through self-report measures (MacCann, Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2003; Neubauer & Freudenthaler, 2005). Research has highlighted the utility of emotional intelligence. The limited research on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction suggests that trait-based (self-report) emotional intelligence measures tend to yield more positive results than those obtained when utilizing ability-based emotional intelligence measures such as the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test – MSCEIT (Abraham, 2000; Carmeli, 2003; Sy et al., 2006; Wong & Law, 2002). Atwater and Yammarino, 1992; Sosik and Megerian, 1999; and Weisinger, 1999 whose literature suggests that promoting the development of emotional intelligence competencies through the use of assessment instruments can help improve self-awareness because it enables participants to recognize their own emotions and the emotions of others. Therefore, the use of an emotional intelligence instrument to assess competencies holds the possibility for improving the performance of law enforcement officers (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Goleman, Boyatzis, & Mckee, 2002; Stein & Book, 2001). In a study by Afolabi, Awosola, and Omole (2010), the authors evaluated the impact of emotional intelligence on job performance and satisfaction among Nigerian police officers. The relationship between emotional intelligence and gender was explored on 119 police officers randomly chosen from the Esan Area Command in Nigeria (Afolabi, Awosola, & Omole, 2010). The study revealed that with higher emotional intelligence, police officers were satisfied with their work and consequently performed better, as compared to police officers with low emotional intelligence (Afolabi et al., 2010). Consequently, the authors rightly recommended that measures be made to improve the emotional intelligence of police officers in order to eventually improve the quality of their work. In a similar study, Aremu, Pakes and Johnston (2011) also evaluated the impact of emotional intelligence on the Nigerian police, this time on the reduction of corrupt practices. Three hundred police officers were randomly chosen from three State Police Command areas. The Police Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Police Ethical Behavior Scale was used in this study with data collected on the emotional intelligence of police officers and how these impact on police corruption (Aremu, Pakes, & Johnston, 2011). The study revealed that with higher emotional intelligence, incidents of police corruption were reduced and that emotional intelligence can effectively be utilized in order to ensure integrity within the police practice in Nigeria. The relationship of this study with the current topic is minimal; nevertheless, it establishes the importance of emotional intelligence among police officers in relation to the end goal of improving their work. Turner (2009) discusses in his thesis that in order for police officers to be effective and efficient, they need to be emotionally intelligent. They must also be well motivated and be strong leaders. Evaluating emotional competencies through assessment instruments can also assist in supporting and promoting self-awareness and achieving emotional intelligence. The use of an emotional intelligence instrument such as the EQ-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) in evaluating competencies is important in improving the performance of police officers as it helps officers to recognize their emotions and the emotions of other people. The EQ-I evaluated stress management, adaptability, independence, self-actualization, and general mood (Turner, 2009). With these measures, the status of the police officers emotional intelligence can be established and the appropriate remedies can be used in order to manage poor emotional intelligence. Daus and Ashkanasy (2005) discussed the positive relationship between jobs requiring high levels of emotional intelligence and job performance. Police officers have jobs which require a high degree of emotional intelligence and the management of emotions often helps predict their job performance. The ability to emotionally cope well with any given situation in police officers’ daily duties provides sufficient information on how well these daily duties are performed. In a related study by Saad (2011), the author set out to jointly evaluate emotional intelligence and supervisor support as causes for self-determined work motivation. The author also sought to assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and psychological well-being among 512 police source handlers (responsible for recruiting and development human sources and extracting information). The study sought to evaluate the contention that emotional intelligence is favorably associated with self-determined work motivation and thus would lead to positive work results. Results revealed that emotional intelligence and strong supervisor support did contribute to work motivation (Saad, 2011). With improved work motivation, better job performance was seen, and the psychological well being of the officers have registered positive outcomes as well. There was a strong relationship between emotional well-being and psychological well-being among police officers, thereby supporting the notion that with a higher level of emotional intelligence, a better mental health among police officers was seen. In Dette’s thesis (2008), an attempt was made to assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and the burnout levels of the South African Police Service (SAPS) in the Western Cape. The nature of the work of these police officers requires quick decisions which often involve life and death situations. When police officers are weighed down by stress, their ability to make rapid and sound decisions is often compromised (Dette, 2008). In effect, the author recommends that it is crucial to employ individuals with high emotional intelligence as police officers in order to ensure that they can deal better with burnout. This study presents results which indicate the importance of Emotional Intelligence among police officers and assessing such intelligence would also produce improved job satisfaction within the police force. Bar-on, Brown, and Kircaldy (1999) carried out their study in order to evaluate emotional intelligence and its impact on the latitude given for emotional expressiveness and adaptation among police officers, child care workers, and educators in mental health practice. One hundred and sixty-seven respondents were evaluated with the Emotional Quotient Inventory. The study revealed that police officers with high emotional intelligence were usually more adaptable than the other groups of respondents. With improved emotional stability and intelligence, police officers also demonstrated better work performance and higher scores of emotional stability based on the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) applied by the researchers in the assessment process. In a similar study, Aremu (2005) sought to evaluate the effect of self-efficacy emotional intelligence and motivation on young police officers in Ibadan, Nigeria. It was carried out as a field-based survey set to gather quantitative data on 200 non-commissioned officers. Overall, the study revealed that independent variables, including credentialing, career experience, self-efficacy emotional intelligence, and motivation in terms of career commitment were generally positive predictors of career commitment among young police officers (Aremu, 2005). The results of this study however could not be generalized to a larger population as it only covered a single group of police officers in Ibadan, Nigeria. Nevertheless, the recommendations of the study are sound in terms of recognizing improved emotional intelligence and general commitment to police work as a career. Job Satisfaction Good job satisfaction offers many positive benefits to both the police employee as well as the police organization (Carlan, 2007). One can say that the community would benefit from a police officer being satisfied with his or her job. According to Zhao, Thurman, and He (1999) previous research on police officers and job satisfaction has centered around the following demographics: “sex, race, education, and time of service at the department” (p. 155-156). According to Dantzker (1994), there were no significant differences in job satisfaction between males or females in a study he conducted on 2,734 police officers across 7 states. A 23-item questionnaire was used in order to evaluate job satisfaction among the police officers. In another study, Krimmel and Gormley (2003) carried out their research in New Jersey and Pennsylvania on African American officers and found slightly lower levels of job satisfaction when compared to white police officers, but the difference was not of statistical significance. According to Dantzker (1994), officers who are the most satisfied are those from 20 to 25 years old and that high level of satisfaction flatten out between six and ten years. Other studies reveal an increase in job satisfaction over the years and through promotions (Carlan, 2007). Balci (2011) carried out research exploring the relationship between job satisfaction and education among police officers. This author found that there did seem to be an insignificant amount of a negative relationship between job satisfaction and higher levels of education. In other words, those with higher levels of education were more prone to lower job satisfaction when compared to officers with lower levels of education (Balci, 2011). There does not seem to be a clear explanation to this result in the study, however, the authors point out that those who have lower levels of education may not already expect anything else from their job in terms of promotion or pay raise; on the other hand, those who have higher levels of education may have higher job expectations in terms of higher pay or job advancement which may cause dissatisfaction when unmet (Balci, 2011). The job satisfaction may then arise from unfulfilled job expectations. In reference to education, one would tend to believe that the more education a police officer has the more satisfied he or she would be in the job (Zhao et al., 1999). According to Lofkowitz (1974), this is not the case. In his research, he found that “police officers who had masters’ degrees had the lowest level of job satisfaction with their job” (p. 225). Overall, the consensus of whether sex, race, education or experience influences job satisfaction levels among police officers is not clear. Research in the past has failed to provide clear answers. Instead, what previous research has done is open the doors for further research to consider what factors due influence job satisfaction levels. Some factors that have not been considered are perceived stress, social support, and emotional intelligence among police officers in urban police departments. Very little research has addressed these areas, and this is why this research is vital to police organizations around the country. In a study by Carlan (2007), the author evaluated police job satisfaction and its relation to occupation attraction. This study revealed that in general police officers from sixteen municipal units across Alabama manifested moderate to high job satisfactions. Job satisfaction was seen in relation to six variables: social contribution, pay, adventure, autonomy, peer respect, and job security (Carlan, 2007). Job satisfaction among police officers was largely based on the accomplishment of their expectations in the work environment. With these expectations being fulfilled, their job satisfaction usually was reported at a higher rate. In a research by Burke and Mikkelsen (2006), the authors set out to compare the work experience and the psychological well-being of police workers across five career stages. Information was gained from 460 police officers in Norway by asking them to complete questionnaires. The study revealed that the highest job satisfaction was seen during the early stages of the police officer’s careers and police officer’s felt this through the higher social support they received, the lesser degree of cynicism they felt, and the fewer health issues they were going through (Burke & Mikkelsen, 2006). In effect, job satisfaction was apparent among these police officers because they were still young and they were still enthusiastic about their careers. In a similar study Bragg (2003) sought to support the literature on career stage theory by evaluating the application of these models in relation to job satisfaction among Queensland police officers. This study also evaluated the impact of other variables on job satisfaction. It covered 246 police officers upon whom the Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI) was carried out. Variables for job satisfaction which were measured in this study included satisfaction in terms of: salary, promotion, supervision, co-workers and work; five aspects of work commitment were also evaluated (Bragg, 2003). One of the results of this study indicated no relationship between the age groupings and job satisfaction or work commitment. However, they also found, work satisfaction is usually at its peak within the first two years of a police officer’s tenure and later decreases as the tenure progresses. The author discussed that this decreasing job satisfaction as tenure progresses may be attributed to the structural issues of police work, the lack of support from other police officers, and the impact of police subculture (Bragg, 2003). Job satisfaction seems also to be strongly associated with promotions and high levels of organizational commitment. The study concluded that police careers go through a variety of stages and with each stage reached; the job satisfaction is likely to increase (Bragg, 2003). In a recent research study, Ercikti, Vito, Walsh, and Higgins (2011) sought to evaluate the levels of job satisfaction among police managers. Their data analysis revealed that police managers demonstrated higher levels of job satisfaction as compared to police officers. With the many years in service, as well as the feedback on the job, and the engagement in the Compstat programs (crime statistics and analysis), the police managers were able to gain more job satisfaction (Ercikti, Vito, Walsh, & Higgins, 2011). The involvement of the officers in the COP (community oriented policing) and the Compstat programs helped them gain a higher level of job satisfaction, enriching their daily activities and often easing the work difficulties they encountered on a daily basis. This study however included 136 officers who were not randomly chosen (Ercikti et al., 2011). This reduced the generalizability and the validity of the research results because the participants were specifically selected, and does not exhibit a true sample population. Nevertheless, the authors were able to point out the importance of community policing policies in improving the job satisfaction of police officers and managers. A study by Hwang (2008) was carried out in order to compare the job satisfaction felt by police officers in the city and those in smaller areas in South Korea. This study included 1500 police officers in South Korea. The research demonstrated that there does not seem to be any significant difference in the job satisfaction of police officers in the metropolitan areas and those in the smaller rural areas (Hwang, 2008). However, the authors noted that factors such as years in service and rank often had a negative impact on the job satisfaction of police officers in the cities; which was not the case for police officers in the rural areas. This research implies that the risk is often seen among police officers in the bigger cities. Chan and Doran (2009) discuss the level of job satisfaction seen among Australian police officers after 9-10 years after they entered the force. This was a longitudinal study of police recruits, evaluating their career track, job satisfaction levels, and turnover rates in the 10 year period of the study. The research revealed that the police officers who stayed in the force had a high job satisfaction, however they were not satisfied with the police organization as a whole, especially in terms of the performance evaluation and promotion processes in place and about half of the police officers were contemplating a career change (Chan & Doran, 2009). The study suggested that retention of police officers can be ensured by ensuring advancement opportunities for the officers as well as improvements in work conditions and peer support for other members of the force (Chan & Doran, 2009). Boke and Nalla (2008) carried out their research in order to evaluate the relationship of organization culture and job satisfaction among police officers assigned to two Midwestern states in the US. The study included 680 respondents in five police units in Michigan and Ohio, the police officer’s perceptions about organization elements of job satisfaction were evaluated (Boke & Nalla, 2008). The study revealed that the characteristics of organizations seem to be good predictors for job satisfaction when compared with individual factors; among individual factors, race seems to be a significant element impacting on job satisfaction. The impact however of organizational factors like management support, job challenges, as well as social cohesion within the profession seem to be strong predictors for job satisfaction (Boke & Nalla, 2008). The results of this study however could only be limited to the Mid-western States due to the researcher’s residence constraints and the authors recommend that in order to establish a clear and more generalized result, more studies involving other states in other regions have to be carried out. Kohan and O’Connor (2002) set out to evaluate job satisfaction, as well as stress with respect to life satisfaction, alcohol consumption, and self-esteem among police officers. The authors revealed that after thorough analysis of results that job satisfaction was linked with positive effects, including an improved life satisfaction and higher self-esteem. On the other hand, job stress was often associated with alcohol consumption (Kohan & O’Connor, 2002). The negative elements often had a greater impact on decisions to quit and consider career changes for these police officers. The study does not clearly define its population coverage and how the sample population was chosen; nevertheless, its results provide a clear insight into how job satisfaction impacts on the retention of police officers. Tang, Huang, and Hung (2010), carried out their study in order to survey job satisfaction, depression, and anxiety as well as the predictors of depression among senior police officers in central Taiwan. About 145 senior police officers voluntarily participated in the survey with data evaluated through t-tests and multiple regression analysis. The study revealed that the mean overall job satisfaction of the employees was between unsure and ‘a little satisfied.’ The satisfaction was also low in terms of payroll, hours of work, and amount of responsibility taken on (Tang, et.al., 2010). About 15% of respondents were depressed and had anxiety. All in all, the authors concluded that the overall job satisfaction of the officers needed to be improved and the amount of support from friends also needed to be improved. In a study by Richardsen, Burke and Martinussen (2006), the role of personality variables were evaluated in terms of police job satisfaction. In this paper, the authors evaluated the relationship between personality variables, job demands and job resources with police engagement. The authors also set out to evaluate the role of cynicism in work and health-related outcomes among police officers (Richardsen, Burke, & Martinussen, 2006). The research covered 150 Norwegian police officers with data gathered via questionnaires. Data gathered established that police officers with Type A personalities related to both cynicism and engagement. Job demands and limited resources were also very much related to cynicism about police work and more resources, engagement among these police officers was seen (Richardsen et al., 2006). Those with type A personalities had higher job demands and health complaints. Work engagement impacted on individual qualities and job demands on organization commitment (Richardsen et al., 2006). This study presents a different understanding of police satisfaction, where personality types responded differently to various job demands, including general job satisfaction. Reference Afolabi, O. Awosola, R. & Omole, S. (2010). Influence of Emotional Intelligence and Gender on Job Performance and Job Satisfaction among Nigerian Policemen. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences, 2(3), pp. 147-154. Agolla, J. (2008). Occupational stress among police officers: the case of Botswana police service. Research Journal of Business Management, pp. 1-11. Aremu, A. (2005). 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