The sidnificant concepts in relation to sociology - Essay Example

Sociology The Significant Concepts in relation to Sociology Sociology is the systematic or planned and organized study of human groups and social life in modern societies as defined by Browne (4). Browne further stressed that it is concerned with the study of social institutions (4). Moreover, Browne cited that sociology tries to understand how the various social institutions operate, and how they relate to one another; this branch of study is also concerned with describing and explaining the patterns of inequality, deprivation and conflict which are a feature of nearly all societies (4). In simple terms, sociology is concerned with studying many things which most people already know something about (Browne 4). Conversely, according to Burton (1), sociology basically refers to the systematic study of society and social interaction. This paper deems to explore and discuss several of the concepts associated with sociology. Instinct Instinct as defined by Burton is the biological origin of behavior (315). Likewise, Burton gave emphasis that instinct is the primary force of survival for all organisms, including humans (61). For Bergson, instinct is one of the elements that coincided in the vital impulsion typical to plants and animals, and which, in the course of development in which they were made manifest in the most unforeseen forms, have been dissociated by the very fact of their growth (142). Kendall defined instinct as an unlearned, biologically determined behavior pattern common to all members of a species that predictably occurs whenever certain environmental conditions are present (42). Instinct is important for it involves behavioral manifestations that help most organisms to adapt and survive in the environment as stressed by Burton (61). However, the implication of applying the notion of instinct to humans did little to explain human behavior for the reason that it does not provide a representation for the wide variation of human behavior around the world (Burton 61). For example, birds build nest and migrate at the time set by instinct (Burton 61). Another example is spiders who do not learn to build webs; they build webs because of instincts that are stimulated by fundamental biological needs such as protection and reproduction (Kendall 42). On the contrary, Browne cited that instinct is also evident in humans; for instance, women are thought to be natural mothers, with a maternal and caring instinct and a biological inclination towards child rearing and domestic tasks (20). Men, on the other hand, are naturally assertive and dominant members of society, inclined towards the breadwinner role of supporting the family (Browne 20). Reflexes and Drives A reflex is an unlearned, biologically determined involuntary response to some physical stimuli (Kendall 43). Sneeze and the blinking of an eye are examples of a reflex; a sneeze may occur after breathing some pepper in through the nose while the blinking of an eye may happen when a speck of dust gets in it (Kendall 43). Drives are unlearned, biologically determined impulses typical to all members of a species that satisfy needs such as those for sleep, food, water or sexual gratification (Kendall 43). An example of this is hunger, which drives one to eat food in order to be satisfied. However, Kendall proposed that reflexes and drives do not determine how people will behave in human societies; even the expression of these biological characteristics is channeled by culture; for instance, one may be taught that the appropriate way to sneeze is to use a tissue paper or turn one’s head away from others (43). Culture and Language Culture as defined by Burton refers to the total way of life of a group of people, their shared customs and practices (37). Likewise, culture has been described by Kendall as the common denominator that makes the action of individuals intelligible to the group (42). Culture is essential for individual survival and communication with other people (Kendall 42). Furthermore, Kendall stressed that culture is also essential for the survival of societies (42). It is also implied that individuals rely on culture because they are not born with the information individuals need to survive; likewise, it was also proposed that sharing a common culture with others simplifies day-to-day interactions (Kendall 42). The way individuals take care of themselves, how they dress, how they behave, what to eat, what gods to worship and how to make or spend money are several examples of culture (Kendall 42). Language is a set of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another (Kendall 48). Language is important for it helps us describe reality; it is also implied that the ability of individuals to use language aids in divulging their experiences, feelings and knowledge with others (Kendall 48). Moreover, it allows people to recognize themselves from outsiders and maintain group boundaries and solidarity (Kendall 48). An example of language is the English language which is termed as the internationally accepted universal language in the world. Ethnocentrism According to Browne, ethnocentrism is a view of the world in which other cultures are seen through the eyes of one’s own culture, with a devaluing of the others (535). Kendall defined ethnocentrism as the practice of judging all other cultures by one’s own culture and is based on the assumption that one’s way of life is superior to all others (62). Hence, as the definitions imply, such approach may increase the likelihood of developing racism, prejudice and discrimination; for example, most students are taught that their own country is the best, thus, these may lead to constant emphasis on the superiority of one’s group or nation (Kendall 62). Furthermore, the negative side of ethnocentrism can be seen through derogatory stereotypes that ridicule recent immigrants whose customs, dress, eating habits or religious beliefs are markedly diverse from those of dominant group-members (Kendall 62). Xenocentrism Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism which refers to both fundamental and favorable orientations to groups other than one’s own (Merton & Sztompka 248). Conversely, Subberwal defined xenocentrism as the tendency among cultures to consider other cultures as being superior to one’s own (U-15). This may also be vulnerable to racism, prejudice and discrimination; for example, Third World countries tend to look down upon their own cultures and value those of the developed countries (Subberwal U-15). This may also be present even in developed countries such as the United States of America where they value certain goods made in Europe more than their own such as perfumes and wines (Subberwal U-15). With these examples, it is apparent that the value of patriotism and nationalism is lost. Cultural Relativity or Relativism Cultural Relativism is an alternative to ethnocentrism according to Kendall which refers to the belief that the behaviors and customs of any culture must be viewed and analyzed by the culture’s own standards (62). However, Kendall also highlighted that cultural relativism has a downside for the reason that it may be used as an excuse for customs and behaviors such as cannibalism that may violate basic human rights (62). Minority Group A minority group is also termed as a subordinate group (Kendall 278). A minority group is one whose members because of physical or cultural characteristics are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination (Kendall 278). In the United States, the minority group or the indigenous population such as the present Native Americans and Mexican Americans were colonized by Euro-Americans and others who invaded their lands and conquered them; in the process, they lost their property, political rights, aspects of their culture and often their lives (Kendall 278). Moreover, the capitalist class acquired cheap labor and land through this government-sanctioned racial exploitation; the effects of such problems faced by the minority groups previously are still reflected today in the number of Native Americans who live on government reservations and in the poverty of Mexican Americans who lost their land and had no right to vote (Kendall 278). Personality Development according to Mead George Herbert Mead took up and developed Cooley’s idea of the looking-glass self, he noted that a subjective and impulsive aspect of the self is present from birth, Mead labeled it simply the I (Brym & Lie 65). He argued that a repository of culturally approved standards emerges as part of the self during interaction and he called this objective, social component of the self, the me (Brym & Lie 65). Moreover, he drew attention to the unique human capacity to take the role of the other as the source of the me (Brym & Lie 65). Hence, it could be concluded that personality cannot emerge in isolation because according to Mead, it involves seeing oneself form other people’s points of view; thus, it is crucial that for an individual to develop one’s personality is grounded on what others perceive of him or her to be (Brym & Lie 65). Personality according to Cooley The American sociologist Charles Horton Cooley introduced the idea of the looking-glass self, making him a founding father of the symbolic interactionist tradition and an early contributor to the sociological study of socialization (Brym and Lie 65). Cooley observed that when we interact with others, they gesture and react to other individuals; thus, it is evident that personality development cannot emerge in isolation for the reason that with this premise, individuals’ feelings about who they are depend largely on how they see themselves as evaluated by others (Brym & Lie 65). Status A status is a recognized social position that an individual can occupy and it can be categorized into ascribed status and achieved status (Brym & Lie 88). If a status is involuntary, it is an ascribed status while if it is voluntary, it is an achieved status (Brym & Lie 88). For example, since I am a girl/boy, my achieved status is a daughter/son (choose the one that applies to you); conversely, my achieved status is (write your occupation like flight attendant, nurse, etc.). Role Roles as defined by Brym and Lie are sets of expected behaviors (88). Likewise, Kendall stressed that a role is a dynamic aspect of status (112). For example, as a student I am expected to fulfill my tasks in studying, doing my assignments and research works, etc. Role Conflict Role conflict could occur due to a variety of factors, it could be subdivided into Inter role conflict and Intra role conflict (Subberwal R11). The Inter role conflict is used to refer to conflicting demands of two or more roles occupied by a person. For example, I am a working man/woman who is also a student and a wife/husband (select what will apply to you or modify). On the contrary, Intra role conflict refers to the stress caused by diverse perceptions of role including the stress that occurs when there is a lack of understanding about roles or they are mismanaged (Subberwal R11). For instance, due to my hectic schedule, I was unable to handle my roles efficiently; thus, I failed in fulfilling what is expected of me. Immigration Immigration is as old as humanity itself as stressed by Ambrosek (1). It is the process of moving from one place to another in order to find better resources or to escape threats from natural disasters or hostile neighbors (Ambrosek 1). Malthusian Theory Malthusian theory posits a negative relationship between population growth and economic development; he also contended that agricultural productivity increases arithmetically, but population increases geometrically (Sanderson 61). Population is therefore characterized by a constant tension between population growth and the capacity of the resource base to provide sustenance for such growth (Sanderson 61). Malthus believed that checks to population growth, both positive like causes of mortality such as famine and preventative like limits to fertility such as the postponement of marriage and limitation of family size through contraception would constrain population growth (Sanderson 61). However, population growth would continually outstrip the capacity to produce resources for the population; thus, population growth ultimately places finite limits on the availability of resources, which in turn limits the ability to expand the material economy (Sanderson 61). Rather than economic development, Malthusian theory predicts that population growth generally results in overpopulation, persistently low wages and widespread poverty (Sanderson 61). Malthus’ theory has some vital points; however, the author of this paper believes that population growth and migration does not only lead to negative effects such as overpopulation, low wages and poverty but also it can produce positive outcomes. The mentioned negative effects are not solely grounded by population growth and migration, the policies of the government are also crucial in meeting the needs of the population; if only the government would focus its program on what will benefit the many even though there is increased population, coping with the demands of the people will not be a predicament. Moreover, population growth can also stimulate creation of new innovations or technology to be able to keep pace with the basic necessities of every individual. Works Cited Ambrosek, Renee. America Debates United States Policy on Immigration. 2008. Bergson, Henri. Creative Evolution. [n.p.]: Kessinger Publishing, 2003. Browne, Ken. An Introduction to Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011. Brym, Robert J. and John Lie. Sociology: your compass for a new world. United States of America: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010. Burton, C. Emory. Basic Sociology. Bloomington: Author House, 2009. Kendall, Diana. Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials. United States of America: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. Merton, Robert King and Piotr Sztompka. On Social Structure and Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996. Sanderson, Matthew Ryan. The Global Political Economy of International Migration. Utah: ProQuest LLC, 2008. Subberwal, Ranjana. Sociology Dictionary. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 2009. Read More