Toward Integration of Theory and Research by Anthony Cobb - Literature review Example

Article review: Power and Authority (Name) (Institution) (Grade/course) (Instructor’s Name) October 28, 2009 Introduction The definitions of power and authority have troubled scholars both in management and social sciences for a long time. However, the application and relationship of the terms have never been in doubt as they heavily tend o rely on the environment and circumstances. Nevertheless a number of scholars have made attempts to define the terms and show how they apply in an organization and society. The following paper thus analyses six articles on power and authority by summarizing them and offering a review and extract the author’s perception of authority and power. Further the paper relates power and authority to decision making in an organization. An episodic model of power: Toward integration of theory and research by Anthony Cobb The paper discuses the development of the episodic model and how it applies in the use of power. The model aimed at demonstrating how power comes into play through a progression of events. The paper defines power as a “general phenomenon of social interaction in which one party seeks to affect another.” The paper recognizes different approaches to power as antecedent conditions, decision making, situational outcomes and behavioral outcomes and argues that these approaches lead to varying definitions of power. The model follows the antecedent conditions approach and develops the model as it applies to individuals rather than groups, states or organizations. According to Cobbs, power is the ‘deployment of means to achieve intended effects” (p.483) while authority is the ownership or possession of power by an individual or body referred to as an agent in his paper. The intended outcome might be observable such as a situation or not observable such as attitude change. An agent has three major characteristics namely psychological orientation, political skill and personal power agents that all combine to determine how the power delegated to him is utilized. These are summarized as ‘will’ ‘skill’ and ‘resources’ (p.485). The agent’s attitude and assumptions towards his target also determine how power and authority interact. The role of authority by Dubin, R. This chapter in Dubin’s book is dedicated to discussing the interaction between authority and power. He writes that authority precedes power implying that only those with authority can exercise power. Those with authority, henceforth called superior frames and transmits decisions to be followed by the subordinate. As such authority is expressed by the behavior of the superior and the subordinate where the former is guided by the expectation of obedience while the latter is guided by the willingness or lack of it to obey as limited by his perceived area of acceptance. Dubin also identifies three function of authority as to enforce responsibility, permit coordination and secure expertise. Authority is a relationship between a superior person who possess power and a subordinate who is expected to follow commands from his superior. It is also one of the modes of influence that distinguishes the behavior and relations between participants. According to Dubin, exercising authority heavily relies on the choice of words by the superior. Consequently, the choice of words determines how the subordinate responds to the authority whereby authority is only present when the subordinate weighs the options and chooses the formal one through abeyance. However, Dubin does not offer a clear definition of power and neither offers the distinction between power and authority. Power to and power over This article reviews existing literature on the views and definitions of power. The author first addresses the importance of power and connects most to politics. However, he notes that some authors view power as a “contested and largely unempirical phenomenon” (p.2). He highlights the importance of power by saying that understanding it answers all questions pertaining to politics and policy process in the society. He highlights two concepts of power as power to and power over. Power to (outcome power) means the ability of an actor to influence outcome while power over (social power) is the ability of an actor to influence the incentive structure of someone else or subjects in order to change the outcomes. Power is a dispositional concept that is indicative of capacity to do things rather than the action itself. These dispositional properties make power to imply capacity rather than the product of power. However, power can also be judged from the traditional way of causation where power is judged from the action done. When power is looked at in a dispositional perspective, then the power of an actor can not be known but only estimated theoretically. Again, power of individuals as compared to power of state varies with circumstance while for states varies with resources. The writer views authority as similar arguing that an actor with power yields the authority to influence the actions of subordinates hence outcome through social power. The concept of power by Dahl, Robert A. Dahl starts of his paper by expressing the difficulty that exists in defining power. He notes that power is best understood in a political system. However, he also notes that power exists as a relation between two or more groups of people. For power to exist as a relation there has to be connection between the actors, time lag and possibility. Nevertheless, the problem lies in comparing levels of power rather than proving the existence of power. For effective comparison of power, there has to be similar circumstances if the comparison is to be fair and not biased. However, this cannot happen in reality. Various methods and formulas developed to allow fair comparison of power are not efficient to the ambiguous nature of power. There is no universally acceptable definition of the concept power. According to Dahl, the definition of power is determined by the nature of the research problem implying that each research has to adopt its unique definition to suit its purpose. In English also, the word power has no definite verb form or a noun to express the relation between subject and noun. Thus power cannon only be best expressed as a form of relation such that A can get B to do something. Dahl argues that power is highly attached to power. While power cannot be conveniently defined, the possession and ability to practice power yields authority. The Nature of Authority by Mandeville, Merten J. Mandeville starts of his paper by absolving himself from unclear definition of terms blaming early scholars and the English language for failing to provide a solid basis for defining authority. He notes that the scholars appreciated the use and application of authority. Due to changes in language, the definitions have tended to steer away from the intention implied by the word authority. The writer attempts to derive the appropriate definition of the word authority and what is implied by the word by quoting a number of early authors such as Socrates and Barnard Chester. He uses their writings in context to show how the definition of authority varies with context. Authority is a form of a relationship between a person who gives a directive and the one expected to act on the directive. However, this relationship will only qualify as authority if the subordinate acts on the directive after weighing the options. The weighing and choice of options by the subordinate heavily relies on circumstances and context implying that existence of authority is limited by such factors. Dahl quotes Fayol who says that “authority is the power to give orders and the power to exact obedience.” (p. 111). Power is thus considered to be just a part of authority. As such, in order for one to have authority, he needs to have power that requires an actor to be obeyed by a subordinate. Authority The writer starts by showing the relationship between authority with other closely related terms such as coercion, persuasion and power. Power is achieved through three ways namely; will to comply, by need to comply and avoiding consequences of failure to comply which all rely heavily on the subordinate. The writer further discusses subordination and authority. He says that subordination may be forced hence does not qualify to be named authority as authority only exist where an actor can control the behavior of the subordinate through legal and morally acceptable channels. The writer does not make very clear differences between power and authority. He says power is the ability to control the behavior of other people of organizations. On the other hand, authority is the capacity to give directives to subordinates with the expectation that they will be followed. Therefore, power becomes a part of authority in that one can influence the behavior of subordinates by giving directives. As such, there arises another term, directive power. This is a form of authority where the actor has the right to give orders and directives which implies on the will of the subordinate to automatically comply. Power, authority and decision making Decisions, whether in organizations or in social or political settings are made by those who have the power and authority to do so. In the discussion above, various writers have varying views in what constitutes power and authority. While some prefer to view power and authority as one and the same thing, others view power as being a component of authority and vise versa. In the case of political parties, and politics it is obvious that those with the highest capability to influence the behavior of voters wins the day. Therefore, their individual characteristics such as oratory skills enable them to possess power to influence the behavior of voters to their advantage. As such, they gain access to additional power when in office through the policies they enact, which entails the decision making process. With the acceptance of their decisions by the subordinates, they therefore gain authority. Such is the simple relationship between decision making, power and authority. However, there is more to this simplistic overview. The decision making process is guided by objectives and strategies to be employed in employing the set objectives both in the long term and the short term. However, whether these decisions will be followed by the subordinates remains to be a big question. Cobb identifies decision making as one of the approaches to power. This is significant in the fact that strategies taken by organizations are developed by an individual or a group of individuals. Dubin writes Organizational influence upon the individual may then be interpreted not as a determination by the organization of the decisions of the individual, but as determination for him of some of the premises upon which his decisions are based. Hence the several modes of influence by no means exclude one another. When the individual decides upon a particular course of action, some of the premises upon which this decision is based may have been imposed upon him by the exercise of the organization’s authority over him, some may have been the result to his training, others of his desire for efficiency, still other of his organizational loyalty, and so forth (p. 177). However the possession of power and authority by individuals for making organizational decisions has not found favor with some critics. Dubin notes that “sometimes it is said that the main problem with organizations is that they require people to exercise and to accept authority…acceptance of authority, it is said by these critics, induces attitudes of dependency and passivity and inhibits self actualization” (p. 202). In Power to and Power over, the author notes that in politics the number of people involved in national decision making affects the health of the democracy. This implies that in any organization, consultation and research should be conducted in making organizational decisions. The writer also notes in one concepts of power, specifically power over allows one actor to influence the incentive structure of his subordinates to influence outcome. This simply implies that decision makers should be empowered with the power over the subordinate though their decision making should be well representative of all concerns in order for their incentives to receive approval and be active. In the Authority paper, the author notes that power is achieved through three ways namely; will to comply, by need to comply and avoiding consequences of failure to comply which all rely heavily on the subordinate. The first option relates to mutual agreement of hierarchy and the apportioning of power and authority in an organization. However, the last two ways of achieving authority do not indicate harmony. In cases where there is no clear order of hierarchy, competition over power and authority may ensue over the decision making process. Dahl notes that while the presence of power and authority may not be disputed, the level of power and authority possessed by one group or individual as compared to another might be disputed. In an organization, this might lead to competition in decision making processes by various positions or departments. As such, this calls for a revised structure where there is a definite flow of power and authority. The discussion of power and authority as it applies in an organization or in social systems is deep and broad. This paper is limited by space and time to discuss it exhaustively. Nevertheless, it has been shown that the authority and power are necessities that create order in a given system as it delegates the role of decision making to a specified group or individual that guides an organization. On the other hand it has been shown that authority is derived from power. In this case power refers to the capacity of an actor to over come challenges in achieving expected outcomes. When this power is legalized and morally accepted by the actors, then it transforms into authority. Therefore, decision makers have the capacity to achieve set goals and objectives by formulating policies to be followed by the subordinates that seek to achieve set goals. If the subordinates view the policies as fair, achievable and inclusive, then they follow them thus the power transforms to authority. References Dubin, R. (1954) “The role of authority” Human relations in administration; The sociology of organization, with readings and cases. New York: Prentice Hall Mandeville, Merten J. (1960) The Nature of Authority. The Journal of the Academy of Management, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 107-118 Dahl, Robert A. (1994) The concept of power. Power. Scott, J. (ed). London: Routledge Read More

Power to and power over This article reviews existing literature on the views and definitions of power. The author first addresses the importance of power and connects most to politics. However, he notes that some authors view power as a “contested and largely unempirical phenomenon” (p.2). He highlights the importance of power by saying that understanding it answers all questions pertaining to politics and policy process in the society. He highlights two concepts of power as power to and power over.

Power to (outcome power) means the ability of an actor to influence outcome while power over (social power) is the ability of an actor to influence the incentive structure of someone else or subjects in order to change the outcomes. Power is a dispositional concept that is indicative of capacity to do things rather than the action itself. These dispositional properties make power to imply capacity rather than the product of power. However, power can also be judged from the traditional way of causation where power is judged from the action done.

When power is looked at in a dispositional perspective, then the power of an actor can not be known but only estimated theoretically. Again, power of individuals as compared to power of state varies with circumstance while for states varies with resources. The writer views authority as similar arguing that an actor with power yields the authority to influence the actions of subordinates hence outcome through social power. The concept of power by Dahl, Robert A. Dahl starts of his paper by expressing the difficulty that exists in defining power.

He notes that power is best understood in a political system. However, he also notes that power exists as a relation between two or more groups of people. For power to exist as a relation there has to be connection between the actors, time lag and possibility. Nevertheless, the problem lies in comparing levels of power rather than proving the existence of power. For effective comparison of power, there has to be similar circumstances if the comparison is to be fair and not biased. However, this cannot happen in reality.

Various methods and formulas developed to allow fair comparison of power are not efficient to the ambiguous nature of power. There is no universally acceptable definition of the concept power. According to Dahl, the definition of power is determined by the nature of the research problem implying that each research has to adopt its unique definition to suit its purpose. In English also, the word power has no definite verb form or a noun to express the relation between subject and noun. Thus power cannon only be best expressed as a form of relation such that A can get B to do something.

Dahl argues that power is highly attached to power. While power cannot be conveniently defined, the possession and ability to practice power yields authority. The Nature of Authority by Mandeville, Merten J. Mandeville starts of his paper by absolving himself from unclear definition of terms blaming early scholars and the English language for failing to provide a solid basis for defining authority. He notes that the scholars appreciated the use and application of authority. Due to changes in language, the definitions have tended to steer away from the intention implied by the word authority.

The writer attempts to derive the appropriate definition of the word authority and what is implied by the word by quoting a number of early authors such as Socrates and Barnard Chester. He uses their writings in context to show how the definition of authority varies with context. Authority is a form of a relationship between a person who gives a directive and the one expected to act on the directive. However, this relationship will only qualify as authority if the subordinate acts on the directive after weighing the options.

The weighing and choice of options by the subordinate heavily relies on circumstances and context implying that existence of authority is limited by such factors.

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