Impact of Globalization on Education - Essay Example

PL POINT OUT GRAMMATICAL ERRORS SINCE THERE IS NONE ACCORDING TO ME. HOW CAN I CHANGE VOCABULARY I DO NOT KNOW WHICH WORD IS PREFERRED BY YOUI HAVE ALREADY USED THE APPROPRIATE WORDS. Name: Affiliation: Date: Globalization and Education 1.0 Introduction: "Globalization is a term used in 1960s but it is a concept of 1990s" ( in Mok and Chan 260). Guillen (2001) puts together many definitions of globalization to give a glimpse of its elaborate meaning. Globalization occurs as a result of transnational exchange of goods, services, money, people, information, and culture (Held et al as cited in Guellin, 2001, p 236). Sociologist Anthony Giddens (as cited in Guillen, 2001, p236) also see globalization closing the wide gap between space and time. It is same for geographer David Harvey and political scientist James Mittelman (as cited in Guillen, 2001, p 236). Globalization is spatial and temporal shrinking of the world. The modernization theory finds main effect of globalization on societies which converge as a result of spread of markets and technology. However, complete loss of identity of various societies the world over is highly unlikely. Sociologist Giddens further adds a noteworthy point to the definition of globalization. He states that it fragments a society by giving benefits unevenly; advantages to some strata of society while others remain deprived, thus the effect of globalization can not be seen as generalized change occurring uniformly, a statement that applies well to the current state of Asian nations. The thought of convergence of societies seems somewhat superficial as the main impact of globalization. Guellin (2001) takes Giddens' definition further stating that there is more inequality between countries than it was ten or even hundred years ago while the wage inequality has taken the form of a problem in the highly developed nations also. Levitt (as cited in Guellin, 2001, p252) probably based his studies on consumption of goods across world when he stated that the consumer of the world has become cosmopolitan. But the sociologist Sklair, though accepts some homogenization of culture across nations but terms it only a temporary effect on account of similar lifestyles, tastes and desires (as cited in Guellin, 2001, p252). Nevertheless, it is clear from every point of view that Globalization has affected lifestyles and brought people together though the extent and future impact of it may be topics of discussion. The impact of globalization is considerable on education but are we heading for virtual class rooms The article pays attention to four dimensions of globalization and then particularly elaborates the influence of globalization on education around the world. 2.0 Four dimensions of globalization: 2.1 Political dimension: Globalization is often referred in terms of market and a general view perceived is that market has become global while governments remained national. It is not only a contradiction; it also neglects a very important impact of globalization. The governments seek international cooperation since they have problems that can not be solved alone. Generally the global governance is perceived as dominance of multinationals in world market and USA in world politics. Jones (144) refers Hirst & Thompson (1996) who saw in globalization the attainment of century-old ideals of the free-trade liberals and who looked to "a demilitarized world in which business activity is primary and political power has no other tasks than the protection of the world free trading system". Held (397) though feels that autonomy and sovereignty of national governments are changing but these in no way have collapsed in the era of globalization. The changes, however, are manifolds such as: The center of effective power is no longer the national government. It is shared by various forces at national regional and international levels. Secondly, the much political self-determination have crossed the boundaries of nation and states for e. g. environmental issues or human rights can no longer be determined by national politics alone. Finally, the present period has ushered in the new types of 'boundary problems', which have blurred the distinctions between national and foreign affairs, internal political issues and external approvals and the sovereign concerns of the nation-state and international considerations. For example, States and governments face issues like bird flue, malaria epidemics, the use of crude and petroleum, the management of nuclear waste and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and terrorism which cannot easily be categorized in traditional political terms as domestic or international (Held, 399). The fields of international law, security and defense procurements, science and research and environmental issues can not be tackled in the state alone. For example, some key weapons systems rely upon components from many countries; environmental shifts, above all ozone depletion and global warming, human cloning, genetically modified foods which highlight the growing limits to a purely state-centric politics. The revolution in communications and information technology which has increased massively the stretch and intensity of all manner of sociopolitical networks within and across the borders of states; and also the deregulation of capital markets (Held 396). 2.2 Economic dimension: The Globalization has certainly increased the free flow of goods services, people and capital, but at the same time these are often barred or restricted by deregulation. In other words, the impact of globalization is shaped by those with power to make and enforce rules. The first core aspect of globalization is technological changes. Firms can regulate production in many parts of the world by new means of communications. The MNCs now trade in many countries but do not diffuse out their technological secrets because for that they have intellectual property rights (Hurrell and woods 20). As a result international trade has caused great uneven consequences. Though the world trade has increased, high level of trade is still concentrated among the industrialized countries. The trade has unequal distribution. The role of IMF, the World Bank and OECD is to be critically examined where the poor countries have weak voice (Hurrell and woods 22). Gilpin (in Driscoll and Clark 61) refers economic globalization as linking of national economies through trade, Foreign Direct Investment and capital flow. Both proponents and opponents are actively voicing their concerns regarding economic impact of globalization. The proponents state that globalization would achieve equality among national economies. Nations not doing well economically would show faster growth. The opponents of globalization are the populists and communitarians. The former though, find economic and technological flow from developed countries to developing countries beneficial, but at the same time feel that power, wealth and security of United states and other industrialized countries would suffer badly in this bid of convergence. The workers would loose jobs or paid less. While the communitarians feel that economic globalization creates a center of rich economies of developed nations and oppressed and impoverished developing nations sit at the periphery. They fear that globalization is leading to greater inequality. As a result the rich everywhere is growing richer while poor is becoming poorer (Driscoll and Clark 62). Dollar and World Bank (31) improve the picture somewhat, though. They state globalization that began in 1980 has engaged 3 billion people of developing countries. The low labor intense products and services of developing countries were only 25%, in manufactured goods sector in 1980 while in 1998 these were 80%. Thus the developing countries have their share well equal or above the world average. The commercial services export has increased to 17% post globalization from developing countries while developed countries export services are at 20% after only a marginal increase. This is the result of trade liberalization and reduced tariffs on export of manufactured goods in developing countries. These nations have liberalized the foreign investment also. Gilpin's (Driscoll and Clark 62) populists had feared that as the technology and capital to developing nations flow, their competitiveness and productivity on account of being low wage nation would increase. At this, the economists had argued that wage and productivity go together. If productivity increases wages too go up. They cited the example of Korea, which as became industrialized; the wages of workers also matched those of western levels. They further posit that developed nations would lose market for those products which the developing nations have begun producing indigenously but increased wealth would create market for products where the former has competitive advantage. The assumptions of economists were logical, only the time these would require to realize was not assessed. Since as India and China, the nations with enormous population, can continue giving high productivity at low wages almost indefinitely. 2.3 The socio-cultural impact: Are Globalization and Americanization synonymous Tomlinson (270) criticized the notion that since United States' reliable culture was adapted by developing nations, it threatened or degraded their own culture. It is not the fault of globalization; it actually is the weakness of indigenous cultures associated with equally vulnerable economy that their cultural identity is at risk. Globalization does not transpire a particular mode of culture e.g. secular or liberal rather it institutionalizes cultural modernity. Thus globalization gives identity where there was no culture existed or it polishes the culture which was only tentative or ill understood (272-273). A strong agreement with Tomlinson's views has come from Moussalli (1). He advice the developing and Arab nations not to use the word degrade or say that globalization is degrading their culture rather use the term change or influence. The critics of globalization argue that it is causing loss of cultural identity. Though, the supporters feel that cultures of the world are coming together in the era of globalization for unification and greater civilization. The enhanced communication and discussion about culture provides better understanding because the organic structures of culture, which are grounded on human intellect, traditions and activities that were implanted in a particular geographical and historical setting, needs to be understood and modified to contemporary relevance. So, if globalization is introduced with desired educational, social and economic support it would facilitate Arab countries to flourish alongside foreign cultures and then their culture may become a universal culture putting Arabs as equals among prominent world cultures. Leung, Bhagat, Buchan, Erez and Gibson (358-367) state that not only the advantages of globalization are being talked about; the protests are also becoming fierce particularly in the Asian nations which have a very distinct culture and lifestyle from west. According to Lynn (2002) globalization has made entry of transnational elements a common feature in everyday life. Whether it is music, TV programs, business or employment. Asian business school curricula are talking of 'global economy', global environment' and 'cultural diversity' (Lynn, 2002, p1). Here, Lynn necessitates being clear about the term 'culture' before one condemns or appreciates globalization. He finds two views concerning culture. For some culture is central to economic. Political, social and technological issues, so for them globalization does impact the culture of a nation. Others may be unclear about culture and discuss globalization only in economic terms. Lynn cited the example of McDonalds in Korea, which is accused of making Korean children obese. But the employees and managers of McDonalds are Korean there and so are the customers. Often the globalization is considered synonymous with the Americanization and the protests are thus anti-American, but presently some protests are clearly anti-globalization. Earlier the protests originated from developing countries raising issues of negative effects of globalization on their culture and youth. Recently, however, developed nations lament increasing unemployment due to outsourcing of jobs to developing nations. As a result, the economy of these countries has seen disastrous downturn. While in other nations the great accessibility to popular culture, predominantly of American origin, does transmit the lifestyle and desires but the effect is only a transient and not really cultural convergence as it does not alter the religious and other cultural beliefs, at least not in the near future (Leung et al 359-370). Lynn (1) accuses the keepers of cultures that they use globalization synonymously with Americanization and fuel anti-American protests. Garg (1-8) on the other hand clarifies the reasons of such anti-American demonstrations, these are: high visibility of western culture, lack of job security, Asian markets full of American products and business and companies with American people. It is also to be noted here that globalization is a highly varied process affecting various aspects disproportionately. Garg also does not see it changing the local cultures. Smith & Bond (as cited in Leung et al., 2005, p359) emphasize that one need not lose traditional belief to become modern. They state that the cultural change may be assimilation or integration. In the former, also referred as melting pot ideology, a cultural group leaves behind some of the dominant features of its culture. While in the latter, also called multi-culturism, the cultural group not only retains all of its values but also adds on some characteristics of other cultures. This latter concept is less disturbing to most of the developing countries. For example, Chinese in Singapore and China indeed endorsed both traditional and modern values (Chang et al; Zhang et al. cited in Leung et al., 2005, p359,). A cultural change need not always be a destruction of self-culture rather it is addition of what is good and forward looking in other cultures. It is to be clearly understood that no culture or religion has negative aspects or disregard for others culture. It is our misinterpretations and narrow views that make us dismiss others' culture as degrading or poor. 2.4 Socio-Economic changes ushered in by the globalization: Ghai (1997) points to fact that contrary to the belief globalization has only changed the living standards of a small minority, the rich fraction, of population of the Asian countries. The proportion seems high in comparison to other countries in the world as Asian nations have vast populations. The impact of globalization on status of larger part of population of these countries is not felt as they still practice their vocations and cultural traditions. So it can not be concluded that globalization has benefited the population in general. In the Asia-Pacific region the businesses are strongly based on personal relationships. Most of these remain family businesses based on social and institutional foundations and thus are "inward-looking inter-firm networks". Such a system developed over the long term in accordance with the particular nation's business environment. Once integrated the component of a business system becomes resistant to changes. Globalization also has only limited effect on these businesses or the transformation comes slowly according to Whitley (as cited in Yeung, 2000, p 400). The success of globalization requires making these closed business systems as 'open systems'. The globalization particularly seeks increased transparency, more mobility of materials (e.g. people, goods) and intangibles (e.g. capital, technology, information and services). In other words, globalization has invaded the closely knit management of Asian systems to give way to major changes in their social and institutional foundations and diluted the secrecy of Asian business enterprises (Yeung, 2000). The change has been beneficial to both companies as well as the investors as the latter's trust increased. Lynn (2002) however, questions: Does globalization give a platform to understand similarities and differences of cultures or it simply enforces certain type of working environments on other countries as well For example, wearing a tie in the warm climate of Asia or using only certain statistical methods for calculating economic outputs may undoubtedly create problems. Lynn emphasizes further that homogenizing cultures may be better idea to spread globalization whereby freedom of choice should be given to be comfortable in once work environment. Garg (1-3) is against calling globalization as Americanization. He clarifies it is true that American multinationals like Coca-Cola, McDonald's, KFC, Pizza Hut, IBM, etc are present throughout the world yet globalization can not be labeled as Americanization. Why Because though Toyota has taken over sizable chunk of automobile sector but no one calls globalization as Japanization, explains Garg. Garg (1-8) further asserts that there are sufficient reasons that globalization is not Americanization. To support his views he points out certain requirements that makes global company: A global company must be trustworthy to its customer, it should constantly maintain good quality of its products, should change to product to local needs and tastes and employ local people rather than importing personnel, collaborate and support local businesses rather than destroying these, should be accountable and transparent. Garg dismisses that globalization or Americanization, as it is for some, does deliberately overtake local culture. In America also it is common to refer people as Asian-American, Korean-American, Chinese-American or Arab-America etc. The second reason for fast cultural changes is the development of skills in technology. In the two more than 100 million strong nations , India and china, there is growing middle class with a penchant of consumer goods which is fulfilled by large number of high paying outsourced jobs. It is the middle class of India and china which is the target for globalization and the same class also show cultural changes most visible. The overprotected and overregulated countries such as Greece are also showing strong winds of change (Vlachos-Dengler 17). The globalization and membership to EU has brought outsiders in constant contact with Greek people and thus their distrust about outsiders is decreasing. The EU membership already started society to adjust for convergence, moderation and ideological consensus. The Olympic games of 2004 have brought a feeling of volunteerism in Greek public. These games are linked with Greeks' deep rooted cultural community feelings. The globalization would increase multinational companies and supranational institutions which would instill, in citizen, a trend towards growth. Generally, to a great extent, there is acceptance to changing culture. So there is a question in front of various countries as to how to manage the change to keep their own culture intact yet be part of global economy 3.0 EDUCATION: 3.1 Decentralization, Privatization and Marketization of education: These are the Asian and transition nations that have been greatly influenced by changes in socio-cultural or educational aspects as a result of globalization. How do the global trends of decentralization and marketization affect education particularly in Asian nations Halsey (as in Mok & Chan 265) emphasized that education being one of the major public and social policy is not immune from the impact of globalization. The global processes of corporatization, marketization and privatization have affected universities. These are no longer the institutions for social welfare rather the government seeks maximum output from the financial input given. Both teaching and research are conducted in managerial way. The research lays emphasis on requirements of the government or the industry Carnoy and Rhoten (5-9) noted that one of the major changes ushered in by globalization is in the education or how society transmits knowledge in the current perspective. The educational reforms along with economic and social reforms are evident. It is argued that at regional and local levels the education has not changed though decentralization and privatization of educational institution had occurred. The institutions are training students on the lines of international institutions to increase the global competence of their wards. The national governments have to make their policies favorable to attract global business rather than look for stable policies. Thus nations have to modify their planning to growth promoting rather than just preserve their national identity as had been done in preceding years. This is the homogenization or globalization culture that we have talked throughout this discussion and education is one of the most potent means to make that happen. No wonder that Currie and Subotzky (in Stromquist and Monkman 123) have increasingly found educational institutions being governed in entrepreneurial way. These are being made accountable for their contribution in increasing regional and national competitiveness in global economy. For this purpose the universities are developing strong links with hi-tech industries and having a managerial mode of control. This market-led model of educational institution is in direct conflict with the academic philosophy and democratic governance. Since it overlooks the community development, equitable social renewal and public good. The extent of changes in university education depends on the political economy of concerned nation and its position in the global market. The impact of globalization is assessed by five conditions according to Carnoy and Rhoten (5-9): 1. There is pressure on governments to reduce public funding on institutions and look for private funding as university-industry partnerships. 2. Governments need to supply the skilled labor to fulfill the global demand. This requires changes in the current education systems. The knowledge intensive demand has increased as higher education brings more pay. There is massification of higher education. 3. The quality of education should match the international standards. Generally the curricula are based on international requirements but the teaching does not fulfill high standards required, particularly in the developing countries. 4. Information technology is becoming an essential part of curricula the world over. It not only makes education less costly through distance education but also makes international quality education accessible. 5. Since the globalization also makes some people marginalized, they become targets of fundamentalist, feminist etc and oppose modernization of education and create conflicts. 3.2'Massification' and Americanization of Education: The growth of institutions have crossed the national boundaries as far as competition is concerned which has become global. The national languages are finding stiff competition with English even within their own country. The higher education has become a mass movement. The changes brought about by the globalization of education are: Higher education has become a private good as it is beneficial for the individual who pays to get it. It is no longer the public good benefiting the society. The doors of higher education have opened for low socioeconomic people and racial, religious minority since that is necessary for economic expansion. The educational institutions are highly varied with different missions, funding resources and quality. The academic quality is no longer in top level because at mass level high quality can not be provided to all students. The academic abilities of both, teachers and students vary (Altbach pars 2-8). Moreover, in many countries large number of institutions have mushroomed within few years of globalization each claiming to be running the latest programs with guarantee of professional success. The time of getting a specialization has also shrunk considerably. The global educational change could be exemplified by the US type community colleges. The US community college model has been exported by many countries as a result of globalization. These models are efficient to counter the socio-economic inequalities and provide already well tested and applied techniques. These community college models grow in popularity particularly in the developing countries. These have many advantages such as being more accessible and less expensive than universities, provide a product oriented curricula, flexible in providing short term programs as per requirements and meet the needs of new local populations and regional people., Globalization has reinforced cultural, linguistic and moral westernization through these community colleges. When the global collides with local it does hamper the maintenance of cultural identity and autonomy. It is the reason US community colleges are not exported by contract in Australia, Indonesia, Korea and Japan (Currie and Subotzky in Stromquist and Monkman 124). They (125) further raise the question as to how can the broader social purpose be maintained in the strong wave of globalization. France, South Africa and Norway have developed alternative educational models in place of US community colleges. These have incorporated some neoliberal changes of globalization while resisted others. These countries have continued their democratic mode of governance and have not applied the Anglo-American managerial mode. Given the concern to long struggle against apartheid the South Africa has though incorporated the neoliberal changes in its education system but preserve the essence of social justice. Nevertheless, the entry of a community college model encourages local educational changes. This model helps fulfill personal career advancement goals, adjusting to multicultural society, impact local business and industry by introducing new curricula and trained workforce. Despite popularity of these community colleges there are some implications particularly on developing countries. These models can not sustain the educational ideals envisioned by different societies. But, since the need of community colleges would not diminish, a variation may be introduced at the most to sustain a little of local perspectives. The globalization has made the world multiethnic, multicultural and multilingual hence the US type community college is highly desired (Stromquist and Monkman 165-167). In the era of reforms the Greek policy makers have opened their doors for the foreigners and immigrants by easing out strict anti-immigration policy. This is an acceptance of multicultural society and is already reflected in diverse student population. Since it has become member of European Union, Greek needs to have its educational policies and practices consistent with other EU members. Moreover it needs to train its own students well to sustain economic status and stability of EU. Whether the change is desired by the students or is reaction to government policies, it is clear that Greece has to gear up for the reforms in education sector (Vidali et al, 358). 3.3 Changing concepts of modern education: Neoliberals, the protagonists of globalization, feel whatever is public is bad while everything private is good. Public institutions are like black holes where you put money and it disappears without any outcome. They believe in only one rationality and that is economic rationality. Students are human capitals for them. As the world is becoming highly competitive economically, they should be equipped with skills and temperament to be competent and effective. Schools that are not preparing students for the financial duties are waste of money. For neoliberals the education is just one more product like car, biscuit or soap. So to self regulate education, it should be marketed. They equate universities with supermarkets and students as consumers. For them the democracy is not a political but economic concept (Apple in Burbules and Torres 59-60). The other framework of education is highlighted in Tikly's (153-155) article on globalization and education for low income, postcolonial countries particularly the sub-Saharan Africa. Tikly discussed the impact of globalization on education through three approaches. The hyperglobists or basically the extreme neoliberals believe this age as victory of global capital, culture, governance and society with demise of state. They feel that sweeping changes brought about by globalization have made schools redundant and education virtual. However, Green (in Tikly 153) dismiss this overstated frenzy of hyperglobist by clarifying that information technology is no alternative to schools and that providing education is still the responsibility of the state to a great extent. The skeptics feel disappointed by the globalization and its impact on education. They feel that globalization has increased the divide between poor and rich nations. Green (in Tikly 153) explains that globalization has not changed the education much and national governments still control their education systems. It is true however, that education system has become more flexible and similar in many ways across nations. The transformationists are ready to accept that globalization has brought a global interconnectedness but they do not agree that it is totally global age. Though, they believe that effect of globalization on education is tremendous since it is primary medium of globalization (Tikly 153-155). 3.4 Is it the era of Virtual universities and e-learning: The typical characteristic of global education is that it involves students in several countries and aims at international participation; it develops curricula with transnational participation in mind. The academic infrastructures and technological facilities support the global student body. The terminology has varied terms such as Virtual Learning, Computer Based Training (CBT), Distance Education, Distance Learning, E-learning, Online Learning and Web Based Training (WBT) (Lfsted et al 19-20). Although there many terms, e-Learning is becoming a more common term. However, the spread of virtual education is truly global, can not be stated confidently since there are more Internet account holders in London than in the whole of Africa. About 80% of the world's population has no access to reliable telecommunications and about one-third has no access to electricity (Schenker in Lfsted et al 21). Li (13) reports his observations of a case study where Chinese students were taking a course from a US university through e- learning. He found that with computer mediated teaching, people from different countries can effectively learn and discuss views with each other without moving out of their country. Student can set his/her own time and pace as instructor is available through email exchange. Li however found some problems as well in this e- learning for e. g. it is only for the computer literates, students and teacher are not in the same room at the same time so assessing course matter may be difficult, moreover it requires great self-discipline and motivation on part of the student. Aoki (100-104) has listed some major global and virtual universities. U21global is the joint venture between Universitas 21 and Thomson Learning, a subsidiary of the multinational publishing house Thomson Corporation. Global University Alliance (GUA) is presently a consortium of six fully accredited international universities from four continents; New Zealand, Australia, England, and the U.S., and an online education company, NextEd, based in Hong Kong. Cardean University is an online venture created in 1999 by the U.S. firm Unext, an American Internet education company founded in 1997, in association with University of Chicago, Columbia University Business School, Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford University and the London School of Economics and Political Science. These universities are offering courses in management, economics etc. The special point is that these are associated with at least one business enterprise. 4.0 CONCLUSION: Thomas (2007) observed an acknowledgement for a global culture which is coming via new technology viz. television, mobile phones, films etc. The resynthesis of culture is so strong that the specific social and cultural identities are blending with other cultures. Moreover, the newly acquired western or American culture, as it is popularly referred as, has been interpreted differently, often negatively, by Asian public. The cause of concern is the Asian youth who is neither fully aware of his own culture nor understands the western culture properly, he just copies it. Asian nations thus are becoming home to confused youths. Kienzle & Shadur (1997) refer to the inward looking, inter-firm business enterprises in the China, India and even Japan that are run by family members and are largely based on trust. The secrecy of such businesses is disappearing under globalization as more openness is ushering into developing countries' business. The educational changes are being brought about by governments in developing countries to train their workforce for global boom. While the negative impact is on the poor who can not get hold of the tempting fruits of globalization and hence, resort to criminal practices of all sorts. As far as educational reforms are concerned these are inevitable. The educational institutions are running on corporate governance models. The interference of state has minimized. The exclusively economic term 'profit' has got acceptance in academic field as the education becomes increasingly outcome based. The few years of globalization have changes the entire philosophy of education. It is no longer purely a pursuit of knowledge, of social welfare and public good rather it is individual centered and is a private good. The major aspect of globalization still remains economic and as evident dictates changes in social, cultural and educational aspects. Work Cited Altbach, Philip, G. "Globalization and Forces for Change in Higher Education", Boston College, 2008. 19 Apr 2009. http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/Number50/p2_Altbach.htm Aoki, Kumiko. "Globalization of Higher Education through E-Learning: Case Studies of Virtual Universities based on International Collaboration of Universities across National Boarders". Journal of Multimedia Aided Education Research, , 1(2004), 99-105. 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"Globalisation and Education in the Postcolonial World: towards a conceptual framework". Comparative Education, 37,. 2( 200): 151-171. Apr 20, 2009. http://education.eastwestcenter.org/education2020/pre-institute%20readings/Tikly.pdf Tomlinson, John. "Globalization and Cultural Identity". 2003. 19 Apr 2009. http://www.polity.co.uk/global/pdf/GTReader2eTomlinson.pdf Vidali, E.L. and L.D Adams. "The Challenges of Globalization: Changes in Education Policy and Practice in the Greek Context", Childhood Education, 82, 6(2006): 358-62. Vlachos-Dengler, Katia. "GREEK CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION". 18 Apr 2009. Greek culture, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/kokkalis/GSW3/Katia_Vlachos.pdf Yeung, H. W-c. "The dynamics of Asian business systems in a globalizing era". Review of International Political Economy, 7,3(2000).), pp 399-433. February 11, 2009. http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/geoywc/publication/RIPE.pdf Read More