The Potential Impact on a Climbers Self Efficacy - Literature review Example

The Potential Impact on a Climbers Self Efficacy Literature Review General Generic Psychological Effects of Witnessing or Experiencing an Accident According to the study of Hagger & et. al. (2005), sports injuries have been identified as a major concern for athletes. The number of sports participants facing injuries has been estimated to be from 3 million to 5 million in a year. In addition, in the UK, around 1 million to 1.5 million are admitted to casualty department in hospitals for participating in different sports that include soccer, hockey, cricket, climbing, rugby and martial arts among others. In this regard, accidents or injuries are recognised to be caused for musculoskeletal injuries in sports participants, which is an important concern for filling up of casualty departments. The injuries faced by sports participants for injuries or accidents have been an important factor relating to psychological trauma, grief and depression (Hagger & et. al., 2005). In this regard, Appaneal & et. al. (2007) noted that despite effective equipment and playing surfaces, athletes are identified to be having injuries or accidents, which are adversely affecting their psychological conditions to a large extent. In addition, post-injury psychological responses amid athletes have been a significant factor leading to negative effects that include tension and anger. Depression is considered as one of the most important negative effects that influence the psychological conditions of athletes to a large extent. Sport injury is regarded as a medical trauma, which leads to increased level of stress. In this context, clinical depression is also identified as an important consideration for psychological distress. The negative aspects after witnessing or experiencing an accident have been caused due to the decreased compliances in relation to diverse self-care medical procedures. The complexities in medical procedures have been accountable for psychological distress (Appaneal & et. al., 2007). Moreover, the study of Appaneal & et. al. (2007) implied that most of the athletes after witnessing accidents or injuries during sports are affected with traumatic stress reactions. These traumatic stress reactions have been affecting behavioural, cognitive along with psychological areas of the athletes to a large extent. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been a significant factor leading to clinical reactions for different traumatic events amid athletes. The athletes are also identified to be having different symptoms. The athletes are recognised to be having persistent re-experiencing of the event through different forms of images and dreams. Athletes after witnessing an accident are also recognised to be suffering from emotional numbing that includes not thinking about the incident and staying away from the people and things that are related to the accident or injury. Physiological arousal is another important factor leading to hypervigilance after witnessing an accident. In this context, the aforementioned aspects are identified to be important factors leading to psychological distress. In addition, these factors are recognised to be leading to functional impairments in the domains of occupational and social aspects (Appaneal & et. al., 2007). Appaneal & et. al. (2007) also noted that frequent incidents relating to traumatic distress has been responsible for affecting the well-being of athletes. Additionally, athletes exposed to certain traumatic events owing to accidents or serious injuries are identified to develop intense fear, horror or helplessness perception in their life. Athletes witnessing such severe injuries or accidents have been leading to an increase in the threat level towards physical integrity as well as incidence rates. The features associated with posttraumatic distress are identified to be present among most of the athletes in a lifelong manner. Emotional and psychological distress is prevalent amid athletes having severe injuries, which arises due to posttraumatic distress (Appaneal & et. al., 2007). The article published by the American College of Sports Medicine (2006) signified that psychological as well as physical issues are associated with athletic activities. Athletic activities result in different physical injuries, which in turn are accountable for developing various psychological reactions. Athletes witnessing or experiencing an accident in any sport events are identified to develop stress relating to behavioural, psychological and physical aspects. Signs as well as symptoms that are associated with stress after witnessing an accident include sleeping difficulty, lack of focus, inconsistency in performance and substance abuse. Similarly, sign as well as symptoms associated with physical stress are related to illness, headache, muscle tension and altered appetite. In addition, symptoms associated with psychological stress also include lack of self-motivation, negative thoughts and lack of concentration (The American College of Sports Medicine, 2006). The article also signified that the aforementioned reactions are recognised to be affecting athletes to a large extent because these reactions cause problematic affects, which directly or indirectly influence the performance level of the athletes to a considerable extent. In addition, emotional, psychological and psychical stresses are accountable for reinjury amid athletes (The American College of Sports Medicine, 2006). In a similar perspective, the study conducted by Ruddock-Hudsson (n.d.) implied that after witnessing injury, athletes are recognised to have negative psychological reactions. These psychological reactions are identified to be hampering concentration and attention of the athletes to a large extent. In addition, psychological distress has been responsible for influencing physical well-being as well as behavioural aspects leading to ineffectiveness in future participations in sports. In this respect, the athletes are provided with rehabilitation process for reviving them from situations and conditions associated with severe injuries. Correspondingly, psychological factors are also recognised to be leading to different issues in relation to injury rehabilitation, injury prevention and injury management. These factors are seemed to be responsible for developing emotional and behavioural responses related to injury. Negative psychological implications can be witnessed in terms of anxiety, frustration, anger and depression. Athletes are also determined to be developing a feeling of isolation as well as unmotivated, which are accountable for adversely affecting the cognitive as well as behaviour aspects. These negative implications witnessed after an accident or severe injury is identified to be building negative emotions and ultimately leading towards disengagement from such athletic activity in future. Subsequently, injuries and accidents during the life of an athlete are identified to be negatively affecting the psychological conditions relating to attitude, confidence and physical health (Ruddock-Hudsson, n.d.). Self-Efficacy/Confidence According to Llewellyn & et. al. (2008), self-efficacy is identified as a concept relating to the capabilities of an individual with the intention of organising as well as performing a course of action for attaining a determined set of outcome (Llewellyn & et. al., 2008). In this regard, the study of Zimmerman (2000) implied that self-efficacy is an important aspect relating to motivation and confidence. It is ascertained as a significant concept associated with ‘performance-based measure of perceived capability’. However, self-efficacy is determined to be dissimilar from different motivational constructs that include self-concept, ‘locus of control’ and outcome expectations in a psychometrical and conceptual manner. It also acts as a predictor based on which individual is able to perform his/her course of action in a self-regulated and motivated way (Zimmerman, 2000). In a similar perspective, Zajacova & et. al. (2005) noted that self-efficacy is required on the basis of outcomes to be accomplished. Correspondingly, self-efficacy is identified to be based on multidimensional construct, which differs on the basis of demand. In this respect, self-efficacy is an important concept, which may be helpful at the time of stress for individuals. It assists an individual during stress situations by motivating such individual in performing his/her course of action in an effective way in order to accomplish and meet the desired outcomes successfully (Zajacova & et. al., 2005). In addition, according to Zajacova & et. al. (2005), stress is determined as a psychological arousal in terms of external demands, which determines to exceed the abilities of an individual. Stress is also identified to be affecting cognitions as well as emotions to a certain extent and in this regard, self-efficacy plays an important role in motivating an individual to tackle stressful situations in an effective way (Zajacova & et. al., 2005). Similarly, the study of Zulkosky (2009) implied that self-efficacy is a conceptual aspect in accordance with which an individual is able to think, feel, motivate and behave. It is a concept that has an influence on the choices of an individual in relation to activities. The levels of self-efficacy are ascertained to be affecting motivation in both positive as well as negative manner. In this regard, self-efficacy is identified to be depended on various factors that include depression, helplessness, stress, accomplishment of determined goals and anxiety. Subsequently, self-efficacy is a relevant conceptual theory, which results to successful accomplishment of desired outcomes. Self-efficacy also plays an important role towards overcoming stress for individuals in long run (Zulkosky, 2009). In addition, Zulkosky (2009) provided an immense overview of the influences of self-efficacy in the life of an individual. It has been identified that an individual with low level of self-efficacy is having pessimistic attitude or behaviour in relation to personal development and accomplishments. The low level of self-efficacy exists due to factors such as depression and stress among others. In this respect, an individual possessing lower confidence or self-efficacy level faces difficulties in accomplishing their desired tasks and goals ineffectively. Additionally, an individual having low level of self-efficacy is recognised to lack confidence in performing required activities in an appropriate way. On the other hand, Zulkosky (2009) also stated that an individual possessing positive or high level of self-efficacy is able to develop strong cognitive processes. Strong cognitive processes aid an individual in performing desired activities in different settings in an effective way. Moreover, a high level of self-efficacy assists in making quality decisions with better achievement in every sphere. Thus, an individual with high-level self-efficacy performs challenging or difficult tasks through appropriate approaches based on motivation and endeavour. In this respect, an individual with strong level of self-efficacy is able to face obstacles in an effective way and enjoy success (Zulkosky, 2009). The study conducted by Bandura (1993) signified that self-efficacy is an important factor leading towards cognitive functioning and development. On this basis of the study, it has been identified that self-efficacy has a significant influence in the life of an individual. There are four processes that include affective, cognitive, selection and motivational, which are influenced by self-efficacy. Self-efficacy influencing these aforementioned factors are recognised to build reasoning capability and factual knowledge based on which an individual is able to perform effectively in different settings without avoiding such stressful situations. In this respect, self-efficacy is identified to be affecting cognitive processes for the betterment of individual in future. According to this aspect, an individual is able to devise personal goals on the basis of capabilities relation to self-appraisal. Respectively, an individual with a strong self-efficacy is recognised to be developing goals based on higher challenges and complexities and such individual is also stated to be firm on his/her commitments for accomplishing such goals. Thus, self-efficacy plays an important part towards the performance of an individual towards their desired individual goals (Bandura, 1993). According to Pfeifer (2011), an individual experiencing or witnessing accident or serious injury while performing his/her activities for accomplishing a desired outcome is identified to have or face traumatic experience. Based on traumatic experience, an individual experiencing or witnessing an accident develops symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Trauma symptomatology is identified to be affecting self-efficacy to a certain extent due to psychological maladjustments. During such posttraumatic stress situation, self-efficacy is identified to be playing an important role towards coping with such stressful situations. In this regard, self-efficacy is recognised to be an integral part for developing motivation and confidence for individuals in the activities where they witness or experience an accident while performing the desired activities. Pfeifer (2011) also noted that during traumatic stress situations, self-efficacy plays an important role towards forming intervention and prevention efforts from dealing with various levels of stress. In addition, self-efficacy is identified as an important mechanism for developing a relationship between psychological adjustments and trauma. Subsequently, an individual possessing strong level of self-efficacy is able to minimise distress by building behavioural and emotional processes, which in turn assists in reducing the prevalence of such traumatic stress and symptoms to a large extent in future, relating to accidents or serious injuries that are witnessed or experienced (Pfeifer, 2011; Schwarzer & Renner, n.d.). The study conducted by Meichenbaum (n.d.) implied that self-efficacy is significant for developing control over oneself to bring changes in their mind-set after witnessing or experiencing an accident. Self-efficacy develops confidence amid individuals, which assists in combating stress and different traumatic situations in an effective manner. Self-Efficacy/Confidence in Sports According to Singh & et. al. (2009), sport psychology is identified to be dependent on different enquiry fields that include emotions spanning and human performance for aspects relating to victory and defeat. Sport psychology is also identified to be based on certain factors such as individual characteristics, group dynamics and organisational behaviour. In this respect, cognitive processes are ascertained to be having a positive impact on performances owing to the fact that an individual’s physical ability is associated with psychological structure. Respectively, the concept of self-efficacy is determined to be an important factor for the development of an individual’s behaviour. Self-efficacy is a belief that an individual develops in terms of capabilities and control for performing certain specific events in his/her life. It is determined as a specific variable that have an influence on an individual’s performance in an athletic activity. Self-efficacy denotes the level of efforts to be bestowed by an individual for overcoming difficult experiences and obstacles. Athletes having higher self-efficacy are identified to be providing strong intensive effort and on the other hand, athletes with lower self-efficacy are recognised to be facing difficulties in performing their athletic activities in the long run (Singh & et. al., 2009). Contextually, Singh & et. al. (2009) noted that in sports, there is a relationship between performance and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy plays an important role towards the development of motivation and energy for performing an athletic activity effectively. In sports where there is a need to perform a task with extensive muscular endurance, self-efficacy ensures in accomplishing such enduring tasks to a large extent. Self-efficacy is having an influence of certain factors related to behavioural and psychological conditions. Self-efficacy affect behavioural accepts in terms of exercise intensity as well as frequency. In addition, it has an influence on psychological aspects relating to body capacity, gender and aerobic capacity. Moreover, it has been a significant determinant for athletes in having control over behavioural and biological influences. It acts as a motivator for athletes in enhancing their level of performing physical activity. In this regard, for athletes, self-efficacy is recognised as an observed physical ability and building confidence level for self-presenting in physical enduring tasks (Singh & et. al., 2009). According to the study conducted by Feltz & Lirgg (n.d.), self-efficacy is an important influencing consideration in psychological constructs for developing striving efforts for being successful in sports. Athletes develop self-efficacy on the basis of certain processes relating to self-persuasion and self-appraisal. In this regard, athletes having a strong self-efficacy are recognised to possess an effective cognitive processing capability. Self-efficacy in sports is based on different categories such as vicarious experience, accomplishments in past performance, physiological states, imaginal experiences, verbal persuasion and emotional states. Correspondingly, efficacy information is identified to be a significant influencing aspect for performance accomplishments to a considerable extent. Efficacy information is derived from mastery experiences of an individual from different experiences witnessed from athletic activities. Furthermore, Feltz & Lirgg (n.d.) noted that an athlete having successes in athletic activities is able to develop strong self-efficacy beliefs and vice versa. In this context, self-monitoring with respect to success in different athletic activities acts as encouragement toward building strong self-efficacy beliefs and sucess (Feltz & Lirgg, n.d.). In the present day context, rock climbing is a risky sport, which is associated with serious injuries and fatal activities that is life threatening (Llewellyn & et. al., 2008). Llewellyn & et. al. (2008) noted that climbers involved with climbing sports are having risk behaviours to a large extent. Thus, self-efficacy of climbers is recognised to be associated with risky behaviour. In climbing sport, climbers possess self-efficacy on the basis of mastery as well as accomplishments derived in the past for providing their active participation with climbing sport. Self-efficacy is important for building control and taking risk for participation in such a challenging sport to achieve success (Llewellyn & et. al., 2008). In this regard, the study conducted by Pereira (2009) signified that climbing sport is the most risky sport for reasons that include serious injuries and death. In this context, climbers are needed to have a strong self-efficacy belief in order to participate in sport. Self-efficacy amid climbers is developed on the basis of certain factors such as control over risk, risk undertaken as transgression, adventurous, risk is adopted as anesthetization of experience, climbing is accepted as self-concept as well as transcendence and distinction along with social recognition (Pereira, 2009). According to Pereira (2009), self-efficacy is developed amid climbers through geological as well as geographical features based on which climbing activity is identified to be representing physical environments that are ascertained to be risky for climbers in terms of irregular and different terrain. The climbers are also at risk due to the factors that include strong wind, a fall and an avalanche among others. In addition, climbers are recognised to be at risk relating to reduced temperature and hypoxia. Climbing sport is also ascertained to be technically complex as well as physically demanding for enduring usage of feet and hands. Moreover, in climbing sport, climbers need to be technically, behaviourally and psychological tactical through mental as well as physical preparation. Subsequently, self-efficacy of climbers on the basis of the aforementioned factors assists in building a strong belief in them for climbing in a caution along with risk free manner (Pereira, 2009). According to Llewellyn & et. al. (2008), self-efficacy in climbing is developed on the basis of confidence that a climber develop in himself/herself. Subsequently, confidence level in a climber is needed to be developed for building his/her ability to a certain extent for dealing unexpected events, physically and mentally prepared for performing challenging tasks in demanding routes, and manage risk in an effective manner. In this context, development of self-efficacy or confidence in climbing is essential for preventing mishap or serious injuries during the activities. Moreover, self-efficacy acts as a motivation for climbers to accomplish and participate in climbing sport with better excellence (Llewellyn & et. al., 2008). The Effect on Self-Efficacy/Confidence from Suffering/Witnessing an Accident within Sport In sports, athletes are identified to be under the prevalence of different serious injuries and fatal accidents that have a strong effect on various areas from psychology to behaviour (Caddick & Smith, 2014). In addition, Caddick & Smith (2014) noted that athletes experiencing or witnessing an accident within sport are identified to have a drastic experience from it. These drastic experiences from experiencing or witnessing an accident in a sport develop traumatic distress amid athletes to a large extent and affect their behaviour towards sports. In addition, athletes are identified to be facing stress in overcoming such experience from an accident. Thus, athletes witnessing such an accident during sport are seemed to be affected in terms of the psychological conditions of athletes considerably. Experiencing an accident is recognised to be affecting the confidence level of athletes, which in turn downgrades their performance in such sport in future (Caddick & Smith, 2014). According to the study conducted by Moroz (2005), it has been identified that athletes develop their psychological structure on the basis of the physical environments in a sport. Psychological structure plays an important role towards the development of confidence or self-efficacy for expediting in the athletic activity. In addition, athletes witnessing or experiencing an accident within a sport are identified to be lowering down self-efficacy in them. Self-efficacy downgrades in different areas that include poor practice and game performance, injuries and tiredness within a sport among others. These are important factors accountable for building inconsistency in their performances. Injuries and accidents in a sport on a continuous manner are recognised to be leading towards traumatic distress (Roger & et. al., 2014; Moroz, 2005). In this respect, Jackson (2011) stated that in sports, self-efficacy is related to performance of an athlete. Respectively, lower or higher self-efficacy is associated with decreased or increased performance, as self-efficacy is recognised as a belief that an athlete develops in terms of ability to expedite a certain specific athletic activity. For instance, an athlete experiencing or witnessing an accident or serious injuries while performing a sport activity may become cautious from future accidents within that sport, which may ultimately result to failure in sport performance. Correspondingly, from the above example, it can be noted that an athlete experiencing or suffering from an accident within a sport may be negatively affecting self-confidence to an extent. In this context, self-efficacy of an athlete suffering from an accident is identified to be downgraded to a certain extent due to various factors. The consequences of which may lead to performance failures (Woolf, 2013; Jackson, 2011). In a similar perspective, the study of Feltz (1988) implied that there are four important sources of information based on which self-efficacy is developed amid athletes. These four sources of information are identified to be dependent on performance accomplishments, persuasion, vicarious experiences and physiological states as discussed in the previous sections. In this regard, an athlete experiencing serious injuries or accidents with a sport is identified to have a negative influence on the aforementioned four sources of information. Influence on these four sources of information adversely affects the level of self-efficacy in an athlete (Feltz, 1988). According to MacDonald (2015), climbing is associated with high risk, as climbers are always in the verge of sudden accidents due to several factors that miscued stone falls, broken legs or fingers and piece pulls among others. It has been identified that only a certain number of climbs has been successful in terms of appropriate survival situations. In this respect, climbers suffering from serious injuries or accidents are witnessed to be having misery as well as uncertainty while expediting in climbing are downgraded to a certain extent. On the other hand, it has been ascertained that climbers suffering from an accident during sport can be positively motivated from the survival stories of other climbers. Survival stories play an important part in encouraging an accident-suffered climber to reveal his/her hidden capability on the basis of various dimensions that include emotion, behaviour and psychological states. Respectively, MacDonald (2015) noted that a climber suffering from an accident while climbing may be positively or negatively affect his/her self-efficacy, which is based on level of control one has in his/her life (MacDonald, 2015). As stated by Klauser & et. al. (1999), climbers are required to possess a high level of confidence and endurance capability for perfuming in climbing sport, as this sport is associated with fatal risk and serious injuries. In addition, climbers experiencing accidents or serious injuries at the time of performing this sport are identified to be facing cognitive as well as physical stress to a large extent. In climbing, finger injuries are the most prevalent ones experienced by climbers and these injuries are caused for climbing techniques, which is based on supporting the whole body weight on one or more fingerholds. These overuse syndrome are identified to lead to traumatic injuries for building extensive stress. These serious injuries caused in a random manner lead towards posttraumatic stress (Schoffl & et. al., 2009; Klauser & et. al., 1999). In this context, the study conducted by Carless & et. al. (2012) implied that accidents or serious injuries experienced by climbers are recognised to be affecting emotional, physical, psychological and behavioural states to a certain extent. Climbers experiencing accidents during climbing faces different levels of stress and health related problems, which in turn are identified to be developing posttraumatic stress within climbers. In addition, climbers develop posttraumatic stress for different factors that include depression, anger and anxiety among others. These factors are recognised to be influencing the level of self-efficacy of athletes (Carless & et. al., 2012; Glasgow, n.d.). Moreover, Schiraldi (2009) stated that posttraumatic stress developed amid athletes might downgrade athletes in terms of motivation and confidence, which in turn generate a feeling of helplessness amid athletes (Schiraldi, 2009). References Appaneal, R. N. & et. al. 2007. Psychophysiological Response to Severe Sport Injury among Competitive Male Athletes: A Preliminary Investigation. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Vol. 1, pp. 68-88. Bandura, A., 1993. Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning. Educational Psychologist, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 117-148. Caddick, N. & Smith, B., 2014. The Impact of Sport and Physical Activity on the Well-Being of Combatveterans: A Systematic Review. 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