Can Terrorism Really Be Controlled - Dissertation Example

Can Terrorism Really Be Controlled The Research Problem This topic has been selected as an interesting, cutting edge topic which merits investigation in the global context. This is a ‘problem’ which requires research and is of great interest to many professionals. There looks to be a great research carried out on controlling terrorism throughout the world, particularly in US because of the 9/11 incident (Martin, 2009: 520-532). Despite of the beginning of the 21st century, terrorism is still considered as an essential threat for global securities interest. Therefore, lots of nations have experienced unrelenting and sporadic terrorism on both sub-national and governmental level. Epitomising the condition of lawlessness in present-day life and progressively turning a worldwide nightmare. Terrorist act includes kidnapping of people who transact business (especially business executives), murder of politicians, aircraft hijacking and terror campaign on embassies. Terrorism in today’s world is much different from its older perspective. Nowadays modern terrorism has brought out a new variety of combat in terms of responses, technology, threats, and victimisations (Randall, 2011: 0-35). Now terrorism has become a global concern. Individuals feel helpless when they think of controlling terrorism. To fight against terrorism always require more weapons and arms, complex plans, more budgets, trained personnels and armies to fight it. It always looks like an act of a number of crazy individuals that we cannot control. Such thinking in reality turns us as a helpless people; that we can’t control behaviour, thoughts and actions of other individuals. The most annihilating terrorist killing that ever witnessed took place on 11th of September, 2001. In that incident 4 of the United States airlines were hijacked by the 19 terrorists, they used all hijacked aircraft to crush the World Trade Centre in New York; the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia; as well as a 3rd target which was the aimed target, an area in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. This incident cost in terms of lives of many peoples, together with the crew and passengers on the planes and also the peoples killed in Pentagon and the New York, is approximately 3000 dead and 1000’s of people got injured (Martin, 2009: 520-532). This unmatched terrorism and its serious implications lift a contemporary set of security fears distressing all civilised countries. Surely, the future lifetime will certainly witness not only the prominent cases like those of 11th September but also several culprits (for example, individuals, countries, and organizations) with the capability and aim to resort to “super-terrorism;” nuclear, chemical and biological. Terrorist now might use new technologies and might also try cyber attacks against the important communications systems and economical foundations. These challenges makes world to think on making models for controlling terrorism. The stability of the world needs useful regional, domestic, and worldwide attempts to counter every type of terrorism. Therefore, as it is expected that during period of previous 4 decades a lots of literature for responding terrorism is seen from nongovernmental, governmental and intergovernmental perspectives. These contradictory publishing and studies, whether scholarly or official, have created chaos and confusion for the public, students, and policymakers, particularly (Martin, 2009: 520-532). The main aim of this research study is to analyse the reactions of civilized countries that have encountered terrorist activities, in order to find out activities those worked and those do not and to present a complete “best strategy for controlling terrorism for the 21st century.” A Definitional Focus Lots of government activities have failed to value the implication and scope of the terrorist threat to present societies. A most important reason behind such failures is the moral and definitional misunderstanding over what causes terrorism. All independent countries reserve to itself the official and political authority for defining terrorism in the perspective of their national and foreign affairs. Briefly, study of different governmental and academic perspectives on the terrorism shows that there isn’t any consensus about the definition of terrorism. However, agreements are present related to the various elements, like culprits (e.g., people, group, or nations), the nature of the act (for example, unlawful), methods (for example, taking hostage), objectives (for example, political), intended motivations and results (for example frustration and fear) and targets (for example, victims). Therefore the suggested definition of terrorism depending on these components is; the figured employment or the danger of violent behaviour by peoples, state actors and groups below national level in order to achieve economical, social and political targets in the breach of law. These activities are aimed to make a great fear in an aim region bigger than the victims threatened or attacked (Randall, 2011: 0-35). Theoretical Perspective Realising the causes and needs of terrorism assists in framing a counterterrorism strategy which includes everything. Terrorists are not identical. Their origins are different, not equally exist from point to point. A few consider themselves as legitimatise actors relating to geopolitics, whilst other terrorist are not more than thrill-kill cults or gangs (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). The history of theoretic attempt for realising terrorism begins from the subfield of group violent behaviour in the study of government of states and other political units, and in fact, anterior to the appearance of criminal justice as a new field in the early 1970s, in a safe manner it can be stated that the study of government of states and other political units had a monopoly on terrorism theories, possibly followed by the fields of economics and religion. Theories relating to criminology, psychology and social science have also definitely had a part to act with a number of significance (Lynn, 2008: 4-12). Culprits of most condemnable crimes attempt to stay nameless in order to avoid arrest and detection. Opposite to this terrorism is frequently characterised by post attack statements of responsibility within which the terrorist give explanation for their motives. Earlier studies have struggled to give explanations in a theoretical manner, the manner in which terrorism was planned and accomplish plans. In spite of the fact that old study utilises theory to give explanation on victimisation structural reasons of terrorism or relating to psychology and personality features leading peoples into terrorist way of life, consistent theoretic support for strategic planning of the terrorists is difficult to determine. Capable possibilities of theoretical for controlling and explaining the concept of terrorism are the application of routine activist theory and rational choice theory to terrorisms and planning. According to rational choice theory wrongdoers consider the risks, efforts and benefits related to the particular crimes when designing and committing the act (Lynn, 2008: 4-12). Rational Choice Theory According to this rational choice theory, terrorism believes that activities of terrorist generally come from conscious, calculated and rational decisions. These judgments of terrorist present an optimum scheme to fulfil the social and political objectives of these culprits. Put differently, according to the rational choice theory, pathologic or not logical behaviour might not be presented by the terrorism but, it could characterize the most beneficial way to meet personal demands in a number of conditions (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). Most frequently this theory is utilized to guess the effectiveness of several policies, i.e., this theory only be practised to assure whether, for instance, self-protective policies like detection of metals and other procedures that raise the affects of acts of terrorism and control the likeliness of accomplishment or practical steps like efforts to stymy sponsors or resources are probably to be efficient. In a number of cases, the rational choice theory of terrorism presents a response in opposition to the supposition that terrorism correspond to a psychopathology, i.e., in the accepted medium, terrorists are frequently believed to be "psychopaths" or "insane." Even though study carried on to evaluate this suggestion is not perfect, the evidence is likely to show that terrorists rarely meet the standards of mental disorder (Nikbay & Hancerli, 2007: 43-50). In spite of that, some complexities of these statements require to be approved. In some cases, terrorists put their lives in danger to support a small family network or social group. The issue is whether these terrorist networks or groups are big enough to be conceptualised as an effort to support other peoples. According to Post, terrorism may reflect constant splitting (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). Particularly, splitting is the thought of children in which they like to comprehend some peoples, including themselves, as completely good and other peoples as completely bad. Such tendency kerbs the anxiousness that can come if some peoples are supposed as a combination of both negative and positive aspects; children are not sure how they should react to such peoples, and this doubt demonstrates as anxiety. As mature peoples, splitting generally dissipates. They identify both the negative and positive aspects in themselves and other individuals. In unfavourable or punitory environments, though, peoples don’t change to recognize negative characters about themselves. Therefore, they attribute negative attributes to others and only positive measures to themselves. They will, hence, plan these unfavourable characters onto other community; they get distrustful from other persons, justifying their activities as self defence (Nikbay & Hancerli, 2007: 43-50). Routine Activist Theory Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen proposed ‘The Routine Activities Theory (RAT)’ in 1979.This theory of crime offers a conceptual model for terrorism inside which pertinent variables such as fear can be incorporated (Horgan, 2009: 136-143). The model proposed by RAT applies that crime cannot happen without each of the three indispensable components: suitable targets, absence of able guardians to defend the targets and the motivated offenders. The central idea of this theory is that everyday patterns of leisure and work influence the intersection of the quoted three components in place and time, and rational motivated offenders are tended to clutch opportunities demonstrated by these patterns. This theory is thus accordingly also referred by an alternate name i.e. “opportunity theory.” Private and public resources can interfere by rendering guardianship to defend the targets at the given points of intersections of willing offenders and appealing targets (Horgan, 2009: 136-143). Specifically, this model assists to elucidate the fundamental role that can be played in managing fear by public policy. With the increase in guardianship and declining number of terrorists’ attacks, fear is presumed to decline. The reduction of fear due to elevation in the magnitude of guardianship should occur as the reduction in number of terrorist’ attacks as well as the increased perception of security takes place without considering the genuine consequences of guardianship on the intensity of terrorist attacks. Specifically important the decrease of fear should cut down the attractiveness of potential terrorist targets. The decrease of fear ought to, furthermore, independent of the effects of terrorism, enhance the quality of life (Horgan, 2009: 136-143). Controlling Terrorism In the modern period, counterterrorist experts are needed to focus on accomplishing several conventional counterterrorist objectives. These counterterrorist objectives can in a practical sense and realistically, only minimize instead of eliminating the threats of terrorism in near future. To control terrorism the main objectives are listed below (Alexander, 2002: 3-15); Preventing and disrupting conspiracies of terrorists from executing their plans. Discouraging would keep the terrorist cadres from getting across the line connecting political violence and extremist activism. Implementing informal and formal international laws, task forces and treaties to produce an accommodative counterterrorist environment. Diminishing human casualties and physical destruction. However, it is evident that none of the proposed models or method can be utilized individually for countering terrorism across diverse terrorist environments or timelines. The process of proposing counter terrorist models is required to entail a longitudinal framework on the basis of practical necessity as well as theory due to the diversity in the terrorist environments and timelines. The theoretical frameworks utilized in the coming future will proceed to replicate the identical classes of reactions encountered in the recent past (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). These comprise of operations, the implementation of force, legalistic responses and operations otherwise war. The utility of these models will demand them to be persistently adapted and updated to rising terrorist threats. Perhaps through these adaptations, terrorism will be curbed to some extent by holding dissenting terrorists off balance as well as isolating state terrorists thereby forbidding them from possessing an unimpeded hand in designing and accomplishing attacks or other kinds of political violence. Government Reactions Presuming that policy-makers comprehend the restrictions of limited reliance on powerful method, it is possibly that alternate measures will be formulated. Operations otherwise war entail compromising options. Such options may offer long-term explanation to prospect extremism. Reliance on conciliate options like social reforms and peace processes dialogues, had shown success in concluding longstanding as well as immediate terrorist crises. If applied skilfully, the future adjustments of these options could demonstrate extremisms with alternatives different from political violence. These options in the past were most often attempted with the precondition that some level of coercion would be considered upon the failure of conciliatory options; this pragmatic consideration may potentially continue. Societal Reactions Since it has been found that extremism developed in the history primarily from the domestic issues or at times from national disasters like invasions, it is essential that the future actions to encounter extremism to incorporate cultural as well as societal responses. It is also crucial that new cultural and societal norms reveal political shifts and demographic changes. Objection can surely be suppressed, but it is seldom a long-term solution without political inclusion and social reforms. This ideal has prospect to sustain in a democratic environment rather than under an authoritative regime (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). The United States of America is an effective subject for assessing these concepts. After the political turmoil of 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. experienced a slow ideological and cultural shift that started to encourage concepts such as diversity and multiculturalism. These conceptions were adjustments to the concept that the U.S. has by and by turn into a country in which an individual demographic group cannot form the majority of entire population by the mid 21st century. This is a considerable ideological move from the ideology of previous generations i.e. "melting pot", when new racial minorities, religious minorities, immigrants were anticipated to consent the cultural values of the mainstream American (Alexander, 2002: 3-15). Within U.S, the grassroots efforts to encourage enclosure have become usual characteristics of the political and social environment (though not absenting political opposition). For instance, private "guardian” corporations supervise extremist tendencies like neo-fascist movements and the right wing. Few of these organizations, such as Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Centre, have carried out programs to encourage community inclusiveness. Government agencies, within the public sector, have long been demanded to promote and monitor and inclusion of women and demographic minorities in the government supported programs (Vito & Maahs, 2011: 90-105). The trend within the home police forces shifting towards exercising versions of community-oriented policing is also a public policy shifting which practically means that the police are being operationally integrated within the local communities to its utmost levels. Societal reactions must, naturally, be accommodated to the idiosyncrasies of every region and nation. However it is difficult to implement in many cases and seems to be nothing more than unrealistic ideal in other case as numerous contending groups and regimes have little involvement in repressing social tensions and frequently attempt to misrepresent these stresses to their welfare. Research Methodology The topic of this research will be defined through background research and a theoretical perspective. The area of research has been for this topic is divided into controlling, which underpin the overall aim of the research. To achieve the control on terrorism, a clear methodology has been developed. According to Cohen et al, the objective of the methodology is to assist us in realising the broadest likely conditions, not the products of technological enquiry, but the procedure itself. Another researcher Naoum states that, “once you have completed a thorough literature search; you should be ready to design your research in detail (Hartas, 2010: 21-31).” With the objective of collecting information globally and gain a proportional sample, it has been decided to do an online survey in order to get the worldwide concept of terrorism and the perception of the world to on the ways to tackle the growing trend of terrorism. It is hoped to obtain specific data so as an analysis may be made and conclusions drawn. As many of the researchers have collected this data earlier, it is hoped that this research will provide a stepping stone for others to continue and distinguish between modern and old terrorism. Global survey and interview from local peoples has also been chosen because now terrorism has become a worldwide concern and every individual in this world want to combat it. This online survey will also assist in analysing the ideas of peoples over controlling terrorism. As this issue is a critical issue so it will be necessary to gain the necessary approvals well in advance of the commencement of research. For research purpose there are different methods for data collection in qualitative as well as quantitative way and these methods vary along several dimensions (Hartas, 2010: 21-31). The chosen tool for this research is a web based questionnaire. However, the advantages and weakness of interviews and questionnaires have been considered. The main advantage of questionnaires is that they can collect data at a lower cost than other methods like observations and interviews. In addition, as they are predetermined and structured, they have a fair degree of reliability. The questionnaire maker can improve the tool by piloting it before presenting it to respondents, because of that increasing reliability, validity, and also to test the process of administration. However, the main weakness of questionnaires is that respondents have limited opportunity to expand, clarify or illustrate their answers. In spite of the fact that the interview is an important method of qualitative research and achieve rich information and data and response rates tend to be high in face to face interviews, they are low on reliability meaning that the findings are difficult to replicate and the interviewer must be objective, pre-empting possible biases by staying within the schedule as much as possible, and by keeping the respondent focused on the questions. The primary pros are that respondents can seek clarification on questions, leading to greater accuracy and more scope for in-depth questioning. There are many disadvantages of interview; among these the most important one is the presence of the interviewer because many respondents are uncomfortable in discussing private issues with an interviewer. When exploring sensitive topics, the questionnaire with fixed choices may be more appropriate and could lead to a more accurate result. Other disadvantages include the level of organisation needed, travel, cost (time), cost (money) and access issues. The results of the survey can be analysed by the people online by using the PHP Surveyor, which gives immediate results and is updated every time another response is received. PHP also exports straight into Excel and SPSS for further analysis. Apart from the speed with which surveys can be sent out and returned, the great advantage is the function within PHP to carry out some basic analysis of the results in real time. As each questionnaire is returned, the results database updates itself automatically with the new data. There is a major advantage over paper questionnaires where one must physically work out the results. Once the website is set up, the carefully designed questions and possible answers will be put into sections in the survey. A list of prospective participants will be input into an address book and an email sent to each contact explaining the survey and supplying a link that the respondent will access which will open a web window to the survey. Each email contains a specific eight-digit number which the programme will recognise, removing the option for respondents to revisit the survey further. Once the respondent has completed the survey, a further email will automatically be sent thanking them for their participation in the survey. In relation to the design of the questionnaire, the questions are designed, based on the topic and the wording is unambiguous, concise and easy to read in order to avoid any confusion. Simple introductory questions are asked at the start of the questionnaire, thus encouraging the respondent to continue. Most questions are ‘knowledge’ and ‘attitude’ questions’. Closed questions were used as far as possible in the web based questionnaire. This is because closed questions are easier to process; they enhance comparability and can clarify the meaning of a question for the respondent. Closed questions therefore decrease bias and increase accuracy of gleaned data. However, disadvantages of closed questions include spontaneity in respondents’ answers, therefore loss in richness of data. Closed questions can also be irritating for respondents, especially if they are mandatory and they feel that no categories are present which apply to them. However, comment boxes have been included for most questions, inviting respondents to comment, which will embellish the survey by providing rich qualitative data. In order to maximise the response rate, the electronic questionnaire is designed to be easy to use, is well structured, well presented and not too lengthy. PHP enables a cut off date to be set, after which no more responses are accepted. A period of four weeks is deemed long enough to assemble sufficient data to analyse. Once the survey closes, data collected is exported into Microsoft Excel, and is then graphically formatted and is used to help analyse the data. Qualitative data will be examined in order to demonstrate if respondents have come up with the same answers, issues, and themes. The data will then be analysed to through input to Microsoft Access then cross referencing. All data will be presented using tables, chart and graphs. Anticipated Problems When any social research dealing a sensitive topic with potential legal or career development implications, the key anticipated problem is in ensuring participants feel comfortable giving their true impressions and opinions. It is essential that in both the online surveys and in the face to face interviews that participants feel confident that their answers will be treated confidentially, and no individual opinions or quotes will be referenced. Additionally, as a fundamental statement in the theory is that organisations do not apply or enforce the same practices overseas due to lighter or less restrictive regulatory environments, the problem of defensive gatekeepers may be encountered. As some of the respondent might want to discuss the terrorist activity within their society but had a fear to discuss it might creates problems in collecting information. Therefore as the student has worked as an advisor on security risk in the environment in question, it is necessary that strenuous effort is taken to stop the student’s own personal opinions and biases being introduced. This is especially important during the face to face interviews and in the coding of the interview transcripts. To achieve this, the student will ensure that all questionnaires used are tested through the appropriate use of pilot tests, using impartial and informed experts. In addition the purpose of conducting three forms in research in order to draw conclusions will also facilitate triangulation as a method of proving data validity. At last, as this piece of research involves quite intensive study, including statistical and qualitative data compilation and interpretation, as well as work with institutions in the UK to identify and survey representative participant considerable time and financial resources will be required. It is expected however that as this research will possibly help to provide an evidence base for improvement and reform in the controlling the terrorism at both domestic and global level to some extent. References Alexander, Y. (2002). Combating Terrorism: Strategies of 10 Countries. London: University of Michigan Press. 3-15. Hartas, D. (2010). Educational Research and Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Continuum International Publishing Group. 21-31. Horgan, J (2009). Walking Away from Terrorism: Accounts of Disengagement from Radical and Extremist Movements. Taylor & Francis. 136-143. Lynn, M.R. (2008). Communicating Through Violence: An Application of Rational Choice Theory to Terrorist Claims of Responsibility. ProQuest. 4-12. Martin, G. (2009). Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. Sage. 520-532. Nikbay, O. & Hancerli, S. (2007). Understanding and Responding to the Terrorism Phenomenon: A Multi-Dimensional Perspective. IOS Press. 43-50. Randall, J.W. (2011). Terrorism and Homeland Security. 7th ed. Cengage Learning. 20-35. Vito, G. & Maahs, J. (2011). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 90-105 Read More