World Population Growth and the Policy of Nations - Research Paper Example

 Abstract This paper explores four scholarly articles which examine the issues of population growth, overpopulation, and population control measures. Focus is first given to scientific issues and complications with rapid population expansion worldwide. This is followed by attention to proposed solutions and the ethical concerns involved with any government intervention in controlling the growth of the worldwide population. An important but controversial area that many nations worldwide are now facing is the ever increasing prospect of rapid population growth with related issues such as resource depletion, water shortages, and poverty to name a few. This is a complex issue which involves privacy concerns, science concerns, and ethical concerns. This paper will first examine the technical issues with the science behind the issue of population control. Following that, I will elaborate more extensively by examining four separate studies on the subject and the arguments that each study presents. The debate over population growth control deals largely on the question if the potential benefits of preserving our environment; preventing poverty; and preventing slow economic development outweighs the problems posed by government trying to correct these issues with intervention. By government trying to intervene, it is not certain in predictability or effectiveness of all their policies. In addition, fertility is a very personal issue to most all individuals and attempts to justify government intervention on that basis alone are quite problematic. One of the important science issues with overpopulation is that of water shortage as brought out in a study by Fredrickson (2009). South Asia is a good example of a large water crisis area. As of the year 2009, the region has the largest number of malnourished children in the world in spite of recent economic growth (Fredrickson, 2009). Approximately 45% of children in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh suffer from poor nutrition, with water shortage being a root cause. As the author brings out, there are 500 million people in three countries relying on the Ganges River (Frederickson, 2009). Another of the important science issues with overpopulation is in regards poverty and famine. Young (2005) presents Malawi as a good case study of these issues. The author states that a fairly stable government is in place and the area has aid present. Despite this, 37% of the people are malnourished. Population has risen rapidly over the years, and stood around 3.5 million in 1960, but grew to over 12 million by the year 2004 (Young, 2005). Trying to cultivate new land in Malawi is not an option, as there is none left. The options lie with: (1) development of industry to take people off the land; (2) having people migrate into surrounding countries; or (3) using either controlled or uncontrolled measures to keep the population from rising (Young, 2005). The first option would work, but only to a small overall affect. The second option of having people migrate into surrounding countries is only available on a limited scale, since surrounding countries of Zambia, Mozambique, and Tanzania are not open or able to welcome large amounts of people (Young, 2005). One way of limiting growth would be to let AIDS and other disease go untreated along with not trying to lesson the already high infant mortality rate (Young, 2005). These methods however are not morally acceptable to most people. Young (2005) brings out that acceptable methods right now are a combination of family planning, along with reproductive education and health. Limited success is expected with these methods. Without this last scenario being put into place, the projection of Malawi having 20 million by 2025 would not be sustainable (Young, 2005). I will examine four different articles of varying viewpoints on the issue of population growth and population control. One work is presented by Douglass (2006). The author reflects on how past predictions of starvation and ‘mass death’ due to overpopulation have been wrong. As an example, Douglass (2006) points to Paul Ehrlich’s 1968 book The Population Bomb where it was foretold that many will fall victim due to an unmanageable population unless government programs were started (Douglass, 2006). Douglass (2006) mentions a few key concerns for those who would favor forced population control including: (1) what the definition of an ideal population is; (2) the methods that population control would entail; and (3) the extreme intrusiveness of any government agency set up with the purpose to control population (Douglass, 2006). The authors describe how forced sterilization and forced abortions to create a “sustainable” population is not morally or ethically sound (Douglass, 2006). The author further elaborates on how Ehrlich’s 1968 book The Population Bomb had foreseen the government using measures such as putting chemicals in the water supply to enforce sterilization; giving “antidotes” to couples; awarding ‘responsibility prizes’ to those who have few or no children, and ultimately having an agency which would be given “the power to take whatever steps are necessary” to establish a manageable population size and maintain a healthy environment (Douglass, 2006). A slightly stunning statement is made reference to in regards Ehrlich’s final conclusion as quoted in The Population Bomb: If I’m right, we will save the world. If I’m wrong, people will still be better fed, better housed, and happier, thanks to our efforts. Will anything be lost if it turns out later that we can support a much larger population than seems possible today?...Fortunately, people can be produced in vast quantities by unskilled labor that enjoys their work (Ehrlich 1970 as quoted in Douglass 2006). Next, Douglass (2006) briefly examines work by the economist Julian Simon in the area of population growth. Simon’s 1996 work The Ultimate Resource 2 is where Simon argues that population growth is not a liability, but rather a benefit for global society (Douglass, 2006). Positive focus is given to such things as an increase of energy and an improving world food supply. It is argued that population growth will have long-term benefits; even if the short run effects appear to be troublesome (Douglass, 2006). Simon’s work goes to propose that scare resources are more a myth than a reality by using economic reasoning. If a resource becomes scarcer, it would rise in price. Simon found in performing extensive economic research that the long term trend for many resources, including energy, are getting less expensive (Douglass, 2006). Next, we examine a work authored by Nancy Birdsall in 1994. The author presents in her work an argument to determine if evidence of poverty and a problematic environment would justify the government to intervene. She also touches on what; if any, control measures would be appropriate. Birdsall (1994) indicates that poverty is both a primary cause and outcome of high fertility. She found developing countries caught in a vicious circle of high birth rates and poverty. The cycle begins with lack of education for women, along with too small of income to ‘invest’ in their children. As a result, parents have a large number of children with little resources left to put much emphasis on health or education (Birdsall, 1994). The author brings out how population growth has a potential to negatively affect others in society, yet there is a relatively small amount of studies performed to indicate the actual long-term effects (Birdsall, 1994). Birdsall (1994) indicates that mismanagement of what resources available can be as much of a problem as a high birthrate. The author brings out how it could be a logical strategy and an advantage for land-poor laborers to have a large amount of children in order to increase income over time. The problem results when everyone pursues the same strategy (Birdsall, 1994). The author mentions that if all families in the area agreed to have fewer children, the poverty level would lessen and there would be more income (Birdsall, 2004). Other reason individuals prefer large families are to increase their presence and influence in a region. The family increases their physical security, along with claims to property over time by having large families; yet this would also make others worse off (Birdsall, 1994). The author summarizes the negative effects of population growth on economic growth; the environment; and distribution of income as follows: (1) rapid growth of population reduces the rate of growth of per capita income since it reduces investments in human capital. These investments would have a strong effect on economic growth; (2) rapid growth in population harms the environment and can lead to the eroding of natural resources and even contribute to loss of global biodiversity; and (3) rapid growth in population reduces income in some groups, with the poor usually being the worst victims. Overall it creates more poverty issues in developing nations than a limited population would entail (Birdsall, 1994). An elaboration is briefly made on the three points above. Point one by Birdsall (1994) was in regards rapid growth of population which reduces economic growth by scaling back investments in human physical capital (Birdsall, 1994). Further mention is made that concerns in this area have been explored for a couple of decades, but it is still difficult to empirically and formally address (Birdsall, 1994). The author sees this area as one of controversy since parents might fully realize the potential negative effects of large families, both to them and society, but might prefer to have many children at the expense of other things (Birdsall, 1994). Birdsall (1994) continues by stating that a larger population that is properly educated would have a positive benefit to society, yet high fertility tends to prevent investments in education. Studies generally show that children born into families with many children are not as well educated. Parents who have many children and educate them less deprive society (Birdsall, 1994). The author next touches on resources and the environment. She mentions that it is clear that more people will place more stress on the environment, which is an argument to limit population growth. It is stated how demand cannot be met on the existing technology and knowledge available. New knowledge and better use of technology and ‘best practices’ is essential (Birdsall, 1994). After the background information above, Birdsall (1994) poses the question as to whether governments should either encourage lower fertility, or if it is justifiable for government to do so. The author reaches several general conclusions: (1) it is less costly and more efficient for societies to both promote education and also have education programs regarding family size; (2) through policy changes or programs, countries should encourage parents to voluntarily have fewer children. In this way, the environment is better preserved and food production per person is kept even; (3) interventions by government are justified as long as they enhance the welfare of the poor, rather than reduce their welfare (Birdsall, 1994). Interestingly, Birdsall’s (1994) proposal for government interventions requires a twofold approach. Proposals should (1) increase the cost of children to the poor, so that the poor will not see more children as an attractive solution to economic issues and (2) improve the welfare of the poor (Birdsall, 1994). Proposals that would fit these criteria are such things as education and social programs to raise the cost of placing children through such programs. Adding schools and requiring schooling and tuition would raise the cost of having children to parents, but would provide clear society benefits (Birdsall, 1994). Other key issues mentioned are such things as improving the flow of information, since information is costly to the poor. In addition, good economic management of the economy by the government is critical. Policies and programs need implemented which will promote growth. Such growth can raise incomes of the poor and lower birth rates (Birdsall, 1994). A third analysis on population control issues is presented by Mason (1994) in her work Do Population Programs Violate Women’s Human Rights? She discusses the fact that fertility control programs are widespread, but wishes to see if basic human rights of the women are violated, including ignoring their health needs and other needs (Mason, 1994). Mason (1994) indicates that alternate programs which place priority on women’s health, status, and education could be used instead. The answer on which route to take is an important one since the world’s population is projected at over 10 billion by the year 2025 (Mason, 1994). The author goes on to point out how fertility control programs are often criticized because they pressure women to use somewhat dangerous methods in birth control, including abortions or sterilization (Mason, 1994). The alternative policies the article mentions how health education and investing in women’s health through high quality health care are no doubt better, but two questions arise: (1) how valid are the charges that population programs violate women’s human rights; and (2) will the population growth slow enough by only using education (Mason, 1994). The first question can get complicated since the majority of programs now in existence do not use the extreme methods of forced sterilization of women or forced abortion (Mason, 1994). Mention is made that because many program features in place now do in fact lower birth rates while preserving basic human rights, it might be wise to continue along that route instead of relying only on women’s health programs (Mason, 1994). Mason (1994) discusses next an overview of human rights and mentions how human rights differ from other kinds in that they (1) apply universally to everyone, and (2) are fundamental and take priority over any other types of rights. The United Nations have mentioned two kinds of human rights: (1) individual freedoms such as freedom of speech, and (2) social guarantees of the basic needs of food, shelter, physical security, etc… (Mason, 1994). The article discusses that it is important for governments to ensure both types of rights. The exception to guarantees of human rights is that they are conditional, which means they should be exercised responsibly (Mason, 1994). It seems logical, according to the author, that responsibility means that parents do not have more children than they can support. Noteworthy as well is that some would argue that the responsibility of childbirth should not pose a threat to the well-being of society or the environment (Mason, 1994). Due to the fact that it can be argued that society welfare can be endangered by uncontrolled childbirth, it is not easy to say that what is ethical in one portion of the world, might be viewed in a much different light in other parts of the globe (Mason, 1994). As the author further discusses, those governments with rapid growth have generally created programs to slow the population growth. The makeup of the programs varies extensively. Some governments dispense contraceptives to couples at a low cost, or no cost. The next step in the process involves governments who supplement contraceptive programs with education. Some go even further by providing small monetary amounts to those who agree to birth control, such as long-lasting sterilization. The programs that seem to get the most criticism are those who use targets and group pressure to limit family size (Mason, 1994). A fourth study is one performed by Wisensale and Khodair titled: The two-child family: The Egyptian Model of Family Planning (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). A brief mention is made on how concern with overpopulation is not a new issue, and as early as 1798, a British economist, Thomas Malthus predicted uncontrollable population growth in his work Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus’ view was that such things as famine; political instability; and economic instability could only be prevented through government intervention. His ideas that government influence is required came to be known as the “override model” of family planning. (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Other models the authors mention include the “collaborative model” of family planning, which was first outlined by French social scientist and mathematician Marquis de Condorcet who published Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Project of the Human Mind as early as 1795. This model stressed that new technology would produce better food productivity. Continuing education would then give rise to reasonable actions by people, so that government intervention was not needed or desirable (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). The authors mention that debates on both sides of the population issue are still present today. Mention is made on how difficult, if not impossible, it is to reach global wide agreements on policy of this nature (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Wisensale and Khodair (1995) state that since it is not possible for international agreements in many cases, it is necessary for individual nations to design their own strategies. They chose Egypt as a case study to examine. The authors found that official government intervention with family planning occurred in the 1950’s and has went through four phases: (1) discovery and non-interference from 1953-1964; (2) a period of positive interference from 1965-1972; (3) betting population goals and policies from 1973-1984; and (4) political commitment from 1985 to the present (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Wisensale and Khodair (1995) describe how the first phase beginning in 1953 saw several government committees formed in order to increase population, as a larger population was seen to be an asset that would better Egypt’s political stance in the region. The policy changed in 1962 when it was discovered that a rapid increase in population would hinder the country’s standard of living (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Phase two as described by the authors was primarily the formation of The Supreme Council for Family Planning in the mid 1960’s. The goal of the council was to reduce births to 30 per one thousand. In order to do this, two goals were made: a decrease in birth rates along with people being active in family planning programs. The authors note that good strategic planning was weak; however total births did fall a significant number between 1966 and 1972, and contraceptive use doubled (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). The third phase lasted from 1973-1984 as outlined by Wisensale and Khodair (1995). This phase was a 10 year plan where the government undertook to (1) enlarge public awareness of the economic benefits of limiting family size; (2) to promote smaller families; and (3) to change behavior and increase contraceptive activity. Ambitious plans including goals to reduce births from 20.6 per thousand in the mid 1970’s to 10.6 per thousand by the early 1980s were enacted. The government also wanted to raise the standard of living by educating women and encouraging women to enter the working population. Overall, the government thought that “economic development is the best contraceptive” was a good policy (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). The authors note how the results did not come off as expected, and there were problems coordinating agencies. In addition, there were a general lack of resources and not enough accurate information. As a result, the birth rate started to rise versus falling as hoped by 1973 (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). As results of the Phase 3 failings, Wisensale and Khodair (1995) note that a more aggressive policy was enacted from 1985 to the present. Seven principles are behind the more recent policy: (1) the family has the right to choose the amount of children; (2) sterilization and abortion are abandoned in family planning; (3) individuals have a right to move freely inside and outside of Egypt as they please; (4) government use of positive incentives versus negative punishments was used including raising public awareness; (5) more extensive use of educational and other health programs pertaining to population issues was enacted; (6) greater use of local municipalities to implement family planning; and (7) expanding volunteer participation to help manage population issues (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Egypt’s need for a population policy was clear and well-researched. The country has a high birth rate with population doubling every 28 years (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). Next, population is very poorly distributed with 99% of the people living on less than 4% of the land. In addition, 50% of the population is under the age of 20 years old (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). The population control methods that Egypt did ultimately adopt were the collaborative or educational approach versus the coercive strategies that are seen in places such as China. Since Egypt’s problems are similar to locations such as China and Bangladesh, the government deserved credit for good implementation. In 1994, Egypt’s president was awarded the United Nations Population Award in honor of the success (Wisensale and Khodair, 1995). We can see that the issues of population growth are necessary for governments to address. As previously mentioned, it is difficult to formulate international strategies that apply to all countries, so each country has to be proactive in this human rights crisis. We found that policies such as government coercion such as China and other countries are using are very problematic and not one that neither many researchers, nor myself recommends. The clear benefits that education and the success models of Egypt as analyzed by Wisensale and Khodair (1995) would be a good model approach for other distressed countries. The idea of government intervention in population policy that I would favor would be one as Birdsall (1994) mentioned in that if intervention occurs, it should be a positive overall experience for the family and for society as a whole. References Birdsall, N. (1994). Government, Population, and Poverty: A Win-Win Tale. Population And Development: Old Debates, New Conclusions, 1-11. Douglass, B. (2006). Population Control: An Unnecessary Evil. Tennessee Technical University, 1-20. Frederiksen, H. (2009). The World Water Crisis and International Security. Middle East Policy 16(4), 76-89. Mason, K. (1994). Do Population Programs Violate Women’s Human Rights? Analysis From the East-West Center, No.15, 1-8 Wisensale, S. & Khodair, A. (1995). The Two-Child Family: The Egyptian Model of Family Planning. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 503-575. Young, A. (2005). Poverty, Hunger, and Population Policy: Linking Cairo with Johannesburg. The Geographical Journal, 171 (1), 83-95. Read More