Research and Evaluation in Social Work: Social Support of Elderly - Term Paper Example

The Researchers Cattan works for the Centre for Health Promotion Research, at Leeds Metropolitan White and Bond are with the School of Population and Health Sciences, at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne; and Learmonth, is at Sedgefield NHS Primary Care Trust, in Sedgefield. It is in the best interest of the researchers to understand the availability of, and access to, social resources for older people as this is the aggregate of the community which they are in the best position to aid. Furthering their understanding would enable better education as to how to deliver social care resources, and would identify where gaps in delivery exist. Further, being able to inform policy by way of their study would increase the researcher's credibility, and make it more likely for the universities and health centres in which they work to have access to funding, as graduate students would be able to work on research projects, and government and private institutions could contract the researchers for more studies. The researchers appear to have designed an objective study in that; a thorough and up-to-date literature review was presented that identified current gaps in knowledge; a cross-sectional survey allowed for sampling of the diversity of organizations providing services to older people; snowball sampling allowed for access to organisations that may have been otherwise neglected, because of their size or their lack of exposure; a selection criteria provides a set of parameters that characterize the sample for future study comparisons; conclusions were drawn based on the data collected from the survey; and the final thesis was submitted for peer-review to be able to be published in a reputable journal. Overall, it was an empirical study, designed and carried out in a systematic manner, with evidence-based conclusion drawn. The Research Report The Abstract succinctly and parsimoniously reported the main points of the research, summarizing the goal of the project, identifying the population, noting the research methods used, and mentioning the conclusions and implications. However, the abstract did not state the hypothesis of the study and whether it was supported or not. The rationale of the study was clear in its statement: A wide range of community based services and activities have evolved to combat the 'negative' experiences of social isolation and loneliness in later life. The appropriateness and accessibility of most interventions intended to alleviate social isolation and loneliness among older people, however, have remained unclear (p. 150). Also, the research questions were presented in dot point format, which made most of them clear and to the point. However, one goal, 'Explore the involvement of older people in the planning process,' was ambiguous in that it did not state clearly that the exploration would not make use of older person opinions, only those of the organisations servicing older people. All of the research questions were worthy of being answered, as availability of, and access to, social orientated activities is essential to the mental and physical health of older people. However, given that older people were not included in the sample, as a comparison group, it is questionable whether all of the research questions were comprehensively answered. The literature review was adequate in that it included up-to-date research for the UK, and identified gaps in knowledge. The theories drawn on also raised some interesting points, such as many older people do not perceive themselves to be lonely (c.f., Townsend, 1957; Tornstam, 1995; Victor et al. 2005), despite continuous evidence that experiences of loneliness increase with age (authors,). The relationship between aging and loneliness has been suggested to be the result of changes in living circumstances, such as the loss of a partner, or moving to a nursing home, and changes to subjective health (c.f., Tijhuis et al. 1999). It appears that more research into social support could be the key to decreasing experiences of loneliness, as it could inform methods of intervention (c.f., Andersson, 1998). Lack of social support due to social isolation may be the underlying reason that social exclusions and health deficits occur. However, the literature review was lacking in the report of research studies that have investigated social support, the conclusions made, and the adequacy of those designs. The reader is unaware of how other researchers have attempted to investigate social exclusion and loneliness among older people, and is left wondering if the investigation of access to and availability of, social care services is the best way to explore experiences of social exclusion and loneliness in older people. This study can potentially contribute to the practices of social care delivery within the UK by way of policy changes at the national level. As well, social care providers can be better educated as to bet practice methods. Tailoring of activities would better provide access to, and availability of, social care delivery across the wide range of living circumstances of older people (e.g., the homeless, the disabled, and minority groups). As such, discrimination and other inequitable practices can be decreased or eliminated. Further, the study will contribute to better understanding of the need to include older people in the evaluation of interventions and service delivery practices to allow for continuous improvement of those services and interventions. Overall, this study could potentially inform the design of programs that meet the actual needs and expectations of lonely and socially excluded older people, rather than current demand based practices. The Research Design The study was a mixed design, using both quantitative data (i.e., in that a multiple choice survey was used, that would provide categorical, ordinal and numerical levels of data), and qualitative (i.e., in that an interview was used and themes were subjectively chosen from the transcripts, as well as from archival data where it was available). A mixed design provides for a more comprehensive snapshot for the moment in time, as the survey allows for standardized measurement of attitudes, and the interview allowed for deeper personal insights of the participants. It is recommended for that a multi-faceted research approach, for example, using database, policy and a focus group/interview or survey method, provides depth to the conclusions (Green, 2000). It is also suggested by Green that a multifaceted approach to the research process allows for different perspectives on the data, and so it is recommended to combine exploratory, descriptive and explanative research methods (i.e., both quantitative and qualitative data). The design was appropriate to gather data for this complex topic, as the advantage of the using questionnaires is that they allow the participant to answer anonymously, are quick to administer and are cost effective. The standardized format allows for replication of the study, and with a reliable and valid questionnaire there is greater likelihood of the instrument measuring what is to be measured. Also, the advantage of a semi-structured interview is that it provides a human element to the research process (Bryman, 2004). It is a flexible method in that it uses a guide of questions as a framework, whilst allowing the participant to have a free flow of conversation. As such, it provides an opportunity for the participant to talk in-depth about a topic. Although the order of items in the question guide will not change across participants, the different responses of each participant will necessitate different promptings for additional details. This type of interview provides the researcher with insight into the experiences of participants, from the participant's point of view (Guion, 2001). The interview is a one-to-one process, usually, and allows the researcher to gauge the participant's interpretation of the relationships they see between events, people and social values (Bryman, 2004). The interview can be of benefit to participants in that it can be a cathartic experience, allowing them to express themselves in a way that would not normally be possible (Penslar, 1995). However, there was no mention of whether the survey or interview questions had been pilot tested to identify ambiguous, double-barreled or irrelevant items that may have confounded the final results. Also, apart form the mention of maintaining confidentiality with regard to archival research, no ethical considerations were mentioned. Most importantly, issues of informed consent were not touched on (i.e., confidentiality, anonymity, and the right to withdrawal from the study at any time without penalty), nor was the use or non use of incentives fro participants to take part mentioned. It was also not made clear if participants were debriefed following their participation, or if the participants were informed of their right to access conclusions to the study following submission of the thesis. Participants The target population was voluntary organisations working directly or indirectly with older people, health promotion departments and a range of local and regional services directed at older people. The sample was chosen using a snowball sampling method, which is the collection of data from known contacts and asking these people to either provide information about others so that further data can be collected; for this study the questionnaire was passed on to other relevant organizations. Snowball sampling is a common purposive technique, often termed chain-referral sampling. Participants tap into their social networks to refer potential participants to the researcher (Mason, 1997). An advantage to this method is that "hidden populations" of people not usually accessible to the researcher can be accessed (e.g., non social elders) (Shank, 2002). Purposive sampling is a popular method, as the sample size does not have to be fixed before the project begins. It is also an advantage for this study as the sample size will be constrained by time and available resources (Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest & Namey, 2005). However, this method of recruitment is non-probabilistic and non-random, and so the results cannot be generalized to wider populations outside of the Northern and Yorkshire region in the UK. The selection criteria were quite detailed, organizations eligible were those that; - Had knowledge of or provided relevant activities or services. - The activities or projects were based in the community and intended for older people living in their own homes. - The activities or projects could be defined as health promotion interventions targeting social isolation and loneliness. The article was remiss though, in that it did not mention informed consent, and how it was obtained from the participants. Informed consent needs to be seriously considered at the start of any research project (Shank, 2002). Consent is about participants making a reasonable choice to take part in the study, and as such, their aspirations need to "fit" with the goals of the research (Mason, 1997). Informed consent includes the awareness of the researcher that participation is dependant on the participant's understanding of the aims of the project, and what is expected of them during their participation. Informed consent will ensure respect for participant dignity (Mack et al., 2005). Coercion of participation must be avoided at all costs, as the emphasis is on voluntary participation (Penslar, 1995). Hence, informed consent will maintain the well being of the participants as its priority. Additionally, participants need to be made aware that their information shall directly contribute to a sharing of knowledge for other users in the wider community. Also, that it will benefit them in that they will have the opportunity to express their experiences. All participants must be assured of their rights to confidentiality, anonymity, and voluntary withdrawal without penalty. Materials Although the questionnaire provided a standard measurement instrument, the sampling technique has restricted the application of the results. A more appropriate sampling method would have been a probabilistic or random recruitment method, such as placing the names of all the eligible organizations into a hat and drawing out a predetermined number of them, who would then receive an invitation to participate. This would have enabled the results of the study to have a wider generalisation to the target population across the UK, and perhaps internationally as well. The data was analysed using content analysis for the open questions, Microsoft Access for the multiple choice questions, and SPSS for quantitative data. For content analysis, the open questions would have been transcribed onto a word document and at least two raters, unaware of the research hypotheses, would have ideally independently identified key themes in the transcripts, in regards to the research question. Inter-rater reliability would then have been checked, and themes with at least a moderate agreement (r = .60) included for further analyses (Shank, 2002). Key themes would have been organised into broad categories and specific sub-categories and labels provided respectively (Patton, 2002; Shank, 2002). Again, inter-rater reliability would have been used to reach at least a moderate agreement. The primary investigator would then have made interpretative conclusions about each category and sub-category, and where possible assessed the strength of an attitude or perception, and identified issues that differed dramatically in opinion across the sample (Padgett, 2004; Shank, 2002). For the multiple choice questions frequencies and percentages were obtained via basic descriptive analysis of the ordinal level items o the questionnaire. The content data, frequencies and percentages would then be suitable for a Chi square test shall as the data would have been categorical (e.g., type of organization). Continuous levels of measurement would have been used for numerical data, and could use Pearson's r correlations to determine relationships between the data (e.g., between multiple choice responses). Results and Findings The results were very clear and completely relevant to the research questions. There were case studies provided as well as tables that made it easy for the reader to draw their own conclusions, as well as to see how the researchers came to the conclusions that they did. The raw data was not provided, as there were 139 organisations that participated, and this would have made it difficult to compare across the sample. Discussion The research question was answered and this is clearly stated in the discussion, and most of the aims were fulfilled. However, due to the sample not including participation of the elderly themselves it is unlikely that the overall research aim, to identify the range of activities provided for socially isolated and lonely older people, explore the basis and rationale for developing such projects and activities, and investigate the varying levels of older people's participation and involvement in the development and implementation of such initiatives was actually answered. A section was included to discuss the weaknesses and limitations of the study, and this section was quite detailed and comprehensive. The study was part-funded through a Northern and Yorkshire NHS Research and Development Research Fellowship 1996-1998 and Help the Aged 2002. It is unlikely that shareholder interests would have biased the reporting of the results as many of the organizations which participated were not affiliated with government agencies. Conclusions The researchers make logical and clearly structured conclusions based on the evidence of that their study gathered. However, as older people were not included as participants the results are not as comprehensive as what they could be. The recommendations made by the researchers are fully able to inform policy making in the future (i.e., the inclusiveness of older people in decision-making processes), and the questionnaire itself would perhaps make a suitable monitoring tool of organizational commitment to the social care of older people in the community. Finally, the bibliography appears to be adequate for the length of the article, and the sourced material was up-to-date and relevant. No pertinent papers appeared to be missing. References Bryman, A. (2004) Social research methods, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press: Oxford. Cattan, M., White, M., Learmonth, A., & Bond, J. ( ) Are services and activities for socially isolated and lonely older people accessible, equitable, and inclusive Research Policy and Planning, 23(3): 149-164. Guion, I. (2001) Conducting an in-depth interview. Family Youth and Community Sciences Department Document, FCS6012. Green, J. C. (2000) Understanding social programs through evaluation. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd ed. New York: Sage Publication. Mack, N, et al. (2005) Qualitative research methods: A data collector's field guide. North Carolina: Family Health International. Mason, J. (1997) Qualitative researching: An introductory text. New York: Sage Publications. Padget, D. K. (2004) The qualitative research experience. Thompson Learning: Southbank. Patton, M. Q. (2002) Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Penslar, R. L. (Ed.) (1995) Research ethics: cases and materials. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Shank, G. D. (2002) Qualitative research: a personal skills approach. Columbus: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Read More