Qualitative versus Quantitative Research - Essay Example

Running head: Qualitative versus Quantitative Research Qualitative versus Quantitative Research By ___________________ The method of research is not new. Historians have always non-quantitative data such as correspondence, as their primary source material, and through oral history methods have added in-depth interviewing to their repertoire in recent decades. "Anthropology, from its conception as a discipline in the mid-nineteenth century, used qualitative methods such as field observation and informant interviewing to understand cultural patterns and social relationships. Sociology has always drawn upon both quantitative and qualitative methods, such as in the influential Chicago school of urban research in the 1920s, and has often utilised both approaches". (Darlington, 2002, p. 3) Organisational theory has been based largely on case studies created from an amalgam of observation, documentary material and interviews. Qualitative and quantitative methods' versatility can be analysed from the fact that "in recent years specialisations such as medical anthropology and medical sociology have relied heavily on qualitative methods to explore issues relating to health and illness, from the micro-context of the hospital ward or clinic through to the broader socio cultural context". (Darlington, 2002, p. 3) Qualitative methods have extended well beyond the boundaries of the social sciences in academia. Market research was originally based on the social survey but now complements this with focus groups to tap the processes and nuances of consumer opinion, as does research on public opinion and voting intentions". Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative methods diversity can be seen from an interpretive worldview of some of its characteristics: Words. "Qualitative research focuses on words rather than numbers, although occasionally numbers are used to indicate the frequency that a theme is found in transcripts or the extent to which a form of action occurs". (Daymon, 2002, p. 23) Researcher involvement. The main research 'instrument' in qualitative research is the researcher who closely engages with the people being studied. This differs from quantitative research where researchers are remote from their informants (because their research is based on methods such as surveys or structured interviews). Participant viewpoints. A desire to explore and present the various subjective perspectives of participants is associated with qualitative research. Its privileging of subjectivity is also seen in the way that the interpretation of the data is influenced by the researcher's own biography together with their involvement with people in the study. Small-scale studies. Qualitative researchers are interested in deep exploration in order to provide rich, detailed, holistic description as well as explanation. Therefore, small samples are the norm. Holistic focus. "Rather than directing their attention to one or two isolated variables, qualitative researchers tend to be oriented to a wide range of interconnected activities, experiences, beliefs and values of people in terms of the context in which they are situated. This provokes qualitative researchers to account for a multiplicity of dimensions and relationships in the context". (Daymon, 2002, p. 23) Flexible. Although researchers have a topic and an agenda which fuel their research progress, they are usually committed to exploring new and often surprising avenues that emerge as informants reveal their understandings and interests. Research procedures may be unstructured, adaptable and sometimes spontaneous. At times the research process may even be described as rather 'messy' as researchers attempt to unpack the complexities of the social world of public relations and marketing communications. Natural settings. On the whole, qualitative investigations are carried out in people's natural environments such as in their offices or where they shop. This enables researchers to observe how they go about their routine activities and interactions. However, this is not always the case as many focus groups involve groups of strangers meeting together in an unfamiliar setting such as a conference room. Inductive then deductive. "Qualitative research tends to start out with inductive reasoning and then, through a sequential process, employs deductive reasoning. This means that you first get ideas from collecting and analysing the data (that is, you move inductively from specific data to more general patterns and commonalities). You then test these ideas out by relating them to the literature and to your further data collection and analysis (deduction). Theory, therefore, emerges primarily out of data collection rather than being generated from the literature and tested out through fieldwork". (Daymon, 2002, p. 23) According to Naresh K. Malhotra, "Qualitative research is unstructured, exploratory in nature, based on small samples and may utilize popular qualitative techniques such as focus groups (group interviews), word association (asking respondents to indicate their first responses to stimulus words), and depth interviews (one-on-one interviews that probe the respondents' thoughts in detail)". (Malhotra, p. 53) The core qualitative methods include in-depth interviewing of individuals and small groups, systematic observation of behaviour and analysis of documentary data. Qualitative techniques possess the following characteristics: "Small convenience or quota samples are used. The information sought relates to the respondents' motivations, beliefs, feelings and attitudes. An intuitive, subjective approach is used in gathering the data. The data collection format is open-ended. The approach is not intended to provide statistically or scientifically accurate data". (Kinnear, 1996, p. 305) "The realist worldview usually goes hand-in-hand with quantitative research methods. This is because quantitative techniques seek to distance the researcher from the data, both in the methods of collecting the data and also in analysis where numbers and statistics are favoured over words and the organization of language". (Daymon, 2002, p. 25) Other features of quantitative methods are that they tend to be large-scale with a focus on specific factors which are studied in relation to specific other factors. This requires researchers to isolate variables from their natural context in order to study how they work and their effect. For example, you might isolate budgets from all the different aspects of sponsorship and test the hypothesis that "the larger the budget, the more effective the sponsorship programme will be". A further feature of quantitative studies is that they tend to be structured; procedures and questions are determined before primary research begins. This means that theory is tested out through research rather than emerging from the research. Because quantitative methods are associated with numbers and detachment, they are not well suited to description. This contrasts with qualitative methods, where deep, rich description is one of the latter's key strengths. "A trawl through the literature on public relations and marketing (as well as marketing communications) indicates that most studies are realist in their standpoint and quantitative in their methodological approach. Even where qualitative methods are used, it is not unusual to find a realist stance behind the interpretive facade. This applies to both scholarly and industry research and occurs when researchers apply the methods pragmatically". (Daymon, 2002, p. 25) For example, in the advertising sector, qualitative focus groups are used extensively to test out advertising concepts prior to the development of advertisements or to test campaigns before they go into production. Such research, however, rarely goes beyond sifting the good ads from the bad because the focus too often is on the performance of advertising rather than on what the ad means for research participants. Quantitative data are actually intended to quantify or precisely measure a problem, often using sophisticated statistical procedures and scientifically drawn samples. "Quantitative data are usually associated with formal or conclusive research". (2006a) The most common quantitative techniques include observation techniques, experimentation and survey techniques. "The most common applications of quantitative research are determining market factors, identifying customer characteristics and behaviors, and measuring the attitudes and opinions of consumers". (2006b) Qualitative versus Quantitative Research Qualitative research provides insights and understanding of the problem setting, whereas quantitative research seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis. "Whether it is qualitative aspects or quantitative aspects of an analysis, we intentionally induce a systematic variation in terms of different domain and problem representations". (Fehse et al, 1999, p. 179) "Whenever a new marketing research problem is being addressed, quantitative research must be preceded by appropriate qualitative research. Sometimes qualitative research is undertaken to explain the findings obtained from quantitative research. However, the findings of qualitative research are misused when they are regarded as conclusive and are used to make generalizations to the population of interest. Qualitative and quantitative researches are viewed as complementary rather than in competition with each other". (Malhotra, p. 356) However, qualitative and quantitative research in combination can provide rich insights that can help in formulating successful marketing strategies, as in the case of Kraft Foods. Example of Qualitative and Quantitative Research When Kolson Foods came out with its new product, Lasagne, they thought it was going to be a great success. Kolson has the same taste as Kolson's original macaroni and cheese but its preparation is somewhat different from them. They thought that British population would love the convenience and the speed of preparing the product. However, the first year sales were disappointing. Kolson conducted focus groups to figure out what went wrong. The focus groups revealed that customers were aware of the product but perceptions of the product were low. Consumers were skeptical about the taste and quality of the product. The focus groups also revealed that mothers liked the product because their older children could make it by themselves. After confirming these findings in a descriptive survey involving interviews and questionnaires, Kolson launched ad campaigns stressing how older kids can make it themselves. They also included an easy three-step instruction process on the back end of the box to make it easier for consumers to understand the making of product. As a result these ad campaigns were a hit and sales greatly increased for the new Kolson product. Focus groups (qualitative research) and survey (quantitative research) used in a complimentary way allowed Kolson to discover the needs of its consumers. (Malhotra, p. 138) Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Objective To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest Sample Small number of nonrepresentative cases Large number of representative cases Data collection Unstructured Structured Data analysis Nonstatistical Statistical Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of action (Malhotra, p. 137) "The qualitative, naturalistic approach is used when observing and interpreting reality with the aim of developing a theory that will explain what was experienced. The quantitative approach is used when one begins with a theory and tests for confirmation or disconfirmation of that hypothesis". (Newman & Carolyn, 1998, p.3) "There are several considerations when deciding to adopt a qualitative research methodology. "Strauss and Corbin claim that qualitative methods can be used to better understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known. They can also be used to gain new perspectives on things about which much is already known, or to gain more in-depth information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively. Thus, qualitative methods are appropriate in situations where one needs to first identify the variables that might later be tested quantitatively, or where the researcher has determined that quantitative measures cannot adequately describe or interpret a situation". (Hoepfl, 1997) References Darlington Yvonne & Scott Dorothy, 2002. "Qualitative Research in Practice: Stories from the Field": Allen & Unwin: Crows Nest, N.S.W. Daymon Christine & Immy Holloway, 2002. "Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations and Marketing Communications": Routledge: London. Fehse Eric, Kneser Cornelia, Ploetzner Rolf & Spada Hans, 1999. "Learning to Relate Qualitative and Quantitative Problem Representations in a Model-Based Setting for Collaborative Problem Solving" in Journal of the Learning Sciences. Volume: 8. Issue: 2. Hoepfl C. Marie, 1997. "Choosing Qualitative Research" in Journal of Technology Education. Vol: 9: 1 Kinnear C. Thomas & Taylor K. James, 1997. "Marketing Research: An Applied Approach". Fifth Edition Malhotra K. Naresh, "Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation": Fourth edition. Georgia Institute of Technology. Newman Isadore & Benz R. Carolyn, 1998. "Qualitative-Quantitative Research Methodology: Exploring the Interactive Continuum": Southern Illinois University Press: Carbondale, IL. 2006a, accessed on July 17, 2006 from 2006b, accessed on July 17, 2006 from Read More