Methods and Research in Science - Article Example

Political science: Methods and research Methods and research Data triangulation is basically making use of over one method in collectionof data usually on the same topic. In other words, triangulation comprises of utilizing various sources (respondents, fellow researchers, community members) of information so as to raise the validity of a given study. Triangulation therefore assures validity of a given research through using different methods of data collection, mostly, on the same topic or subject, and comprises various kinds of samples and data collection methods (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 2. The following are a set of research goals in naturalistic observation: prediction, description and explanation. Description mostly involves collection of systematic observations, whereas prediction establishes relationships that exist amongst given variables, in other words it can be said to be correlational research. Finally, explanation comprises of establishment of cause as well as effect relationships and is mostly done via experiments. 3. The main advantages of using observational method of data collection comprise of the fact that it is a prompt technique of collecting information since data obtained is usually readily available. Secondly, it is a cheap method in comparison with other forms of collecting data since it requires only observing and recording accordingly. Thirdly, observation offers direct access to whatever social phenomenon is under consideration and thus does not rely on a third party to provide required report or information. Lastly, observation is able to assume different forms, from unstructured and informal approaches to tightly standardized, structured approaches, leading to yielding of related kinds of data, both quantitative and qualitative. Thus, observation can be readily applicable in a wide array of contexts (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 4. Behavior is a term that is broad and basically is our way of communication. Human behaviour can be categorized in 4 types which are; first is passive which is characterized by not requesting for what you want, bottling up anger within oneself, frequently saying sorry as well as saying yes when one wants to say no instead. Passivity usually does not have place and time. The second type of behavior is aggressive and is mostly exhibited by shouting, intimidating, bullying, showing off as well as bossing around. Aggressive behavior is all about dominance, control and this style of behavior stems out of one being afraid. The third type of behavior is assertive which basically is portrayed by individuals who are clear about what they want, are brave and honest with themselves as well as others. The fourth type of behavior is known as passive-aggressive which is characterised by harboring as well as bottling up of one’s emotions. An individual in this case is generally full of anger, even though s/he will mask it very well by smiling, immediately after you turn your back, s/he will look for a way of insulting somebody or creating concern for another individual without directly being held accountable or identified(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 5. The procedure of developing a time-sampling design comprises of acquiring representative samples by way of observation of subjects at various time intervals. The time intervals can either be systematically or randomly chosen. When the researcher selects systematic time sampling, s/he usually obtains information generalizing only the one interval of time that observation occurred (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 6. There are numerous degrees of inference needed of observers as far as recording of the events observed is concerned. First and foremost is descriptive, whereby observers clearly record observable behaviors, for instance the number of times an activity is performed by a worker, utilization or non-utilization of job tools or aids as well as the length of time needed to finish a phone call. Secondly, observers are requested to be inferential meaning they are supposed to draw inferences regarding what behavior represents. Lastly, observers should be evaluative and draw inferences as well as make judgments regarding behaviors, for instance, observers may be requested to record cases in which a manager portrays supportive behavior to the supervised staff and rate the manager’s quality of support offered(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 7. Controlled observation takes place when observation research is done under conditions that are carefully arranged. This therefore means that every subject is exposed to similar condition, so as to see the differences inherent between specific reactions. Uncontrolled observation on the other hand, there is no such careful arrangement and basically there is no control at all over what subjects receive in the subject being investigated. 8. Experimental realism can be described as to the extent which an experiment is able to engage the participant(s) as well as have them behave in a manner that is significant to what one is doing. For instance, if a researcher is studying the effect that fear has on performance of a given task, the researcher’s manipulation ought to actually create fear in participant(s) and make them to seriously take the given consequence/threat of the stimulus, or else the researcher will not get the desired reaction (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). On the other hand, mundane realism can be said to be the extent which an experimental task/situation is a thing that participant(s) may actually participate in, in their real lives. For instance, a memory task such as one in which participants are required to recall some words is quite artificial and not a thing that most people tend to take part in their day to day lives, whereas a task like reading newspapers as well as recalling aspects of it is quite widespread, and therefore high as far as mundane realism is concerned. 9. Some of the sources of bias in laboratory experiments include; experimental error as well as failure to take into consideration of all the potential variables. Experimental error normally is unavoidable while doing any experiment due to falsifiability principle found in scientific method. It is therefore prudent to take measures to reduce the errors as well as understand them so as to better understand the outcomes of the experiment. Research variables on the other hand in any research or experiment are usually factors that can be measured or manipulated. Such variables take on various values and usually influence the results of any experimental research (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 10. Field experimentation is normally a research study carried out in a setting that is natural whereby one or more than one independent variables may be manipulated by the researcher under carefully controlled conditions as the circumstances will permit. Laboratory experiment on the other hand is normally a research study carried out in a setting that is contrived in which the influence of nearly or all significant but immaterial independent variables are usually kept to a bare minimum (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). Part two 1. Advantages of using mail questionnaire include the fact that they are easy to be analyzed, simple to administer, information is mostly collected in a manner that is standardized hence more objective and finally questionnaires format is recognizable to majority of respondents. Some of the disadvantages of using mail questionnaires include; respondents tend to ignore some questions, they may also appear impersonal, are not suitable for investigating long and complex issues. And finally questionnaires may require a follow up investigation to be done so as to research in greater depth as well as identify techniques of solving highlighted problems (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 2. Timing of the mail questionnaire is important so as to get the best response rate. This is because a questionnaire requires one to take some time off and fill in the answers to various questions. It is therefore prudent to do the timing appropriately so as to avoid customarily busy periods like holidays, summer breaks especially when sending questionnaires to respondents who work in schools or exam periods when targeting students(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 3. I would use face to face type of survey research to study drug users. This is because drug users are mostly social people and like to be communicated to one on one. Apart from that face to face has got numerous advantages that include the fact that; there is certainty about the respondent of the question, interviewer can assist respondent to understand the questionnaire, different techniques can be employed and lastly longer interviews can be tolerated as well as being convenient for the participant, especially if done at their home. 4. Dear Respondent, I am a political science major in my final year of study. I am conducting a survey to investigate the attitudes of residents toward welfare programs as part of my research project. It would be a great assistance and honor if you could respond to some questions regarding this topic. Any answer is deemed correct since there is no wrong or right answer and as a matter of fact, your answers will strictly remain confidential. The exercise will only take 7 minutes of your time. Thank you for your time and cooperation. Warmest regards signature and name. 5. Interviewing first involves convincing the respondent to not only cooperate but also give the needed information. This means that the respondents ought to feel at ease and convinced that the research is worthy of their responses and time. After the starting of the interview, there should be strict adherence and following of the questionnaire, though in an informal manner. The interview ought also to be carried out in a relaxed and an informal environment. The questions must also be asked in the sequence that they appear in the questionnaire. All questions should be asked and the ones that are misunderstood as well as misinterpreted must not only be repeated but also clarified as well(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 6. Schedule-structured interview technique is the least flexible form of personal interview. In this approach, the wordings as well as the number of questions are the same for all the involved respondents. On the other hand, the non-schedule structured interview occurs with respondents that are identified to have undergone a specific experience and is mostly centered on experiences of the subjects concerning the circumstances under study. The non-scheduled interview is the most flexible type of interviewing and normally does not utilize a schedule so as to ask predetermined set of questions. The questions are also not asked in any particular order (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). 7. Personal interview mostly has got more benefits as compared to mail questionnaire. These are; the response rate is high, flexibility, supplementary information is collected and finally there is possibility of using different techniques while interviewing. One of the key demerits of personal interview is the fact that it is quite expensive to conduct the interview as compared to mail questionnaire which generally is quite cheap. Flexibility in personal interview allows for interviewer’s bias and personal influence. Finally, Personal interview does not have the secrecy of a mail questionnaire. 8. Interviewing first involves convincing the respondent to not only cooperate but also give the needed information. This means that the respondents ought to feel at ease and convinced that the research is worthy of their responses and time. After the starting of the interview, there should be strict adherence and following of the questionnaire, though in an informal manner. The interview ought also to be carried out in a relaxed and an informal environment. The questions must also be asked in the sequence that they appear in the questionnaire. All questions should be asked and the ones that are misunderstood as well as misinterpreted must not only be repeated but also clarified as well. A probe technique is an approach that is utilized in researching the function of the attention required of movements of respondents performing basic task while offered an irregular stimulus (mostly auditory) in which the subjects ought to respond. 9. There are several advantages of using the telephone interview that comprise; speed, response rate is high, the data is usually of high quality and the cost is moderate. Some of the disadvantages comprise of hesitation of discussing of some issues through the telephone, there is likelihood of termination of interview by respondents before it is over, and lastly, interviewers cannot give supplemental information regarding the environment or characteristics of the respondent. On the other hand, personal interviews have got such advantages as Some of the advantages of face to face interview include; certainty about the respondent of the question, interviewer can assist respondent to understand the questionnaire, different techniques can be employed and lastly longer interviews can be tolerated as well as convenience for the participant, especially if done at their home. On the other hand, personal interview has the following disadvantages; stage fright of both respondents and interviewers, costly in terms of time and money, uneasiness of respondents regarding the anonymity of their answers (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2007). References Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2007). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. New York,NY: Worth Publishers. Read More