Event-Related Potential - Essay Example

Task: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the ERP method for investigating cognitive functions and cognitive dysfunctions. This paper examines the relationship between event related brain potentials and theories about cognitive functioning in both normal and clinical populations. It further analyses the viability to develop basic skills in ERP recording process in the mode of psycho physiological method. It aims focus on the application of Event related potentials in research within the field of Cognitive Neuroscience rendering opportunities for students to develop skills in their applications of measures in recording and analysing. Order#: 199821 Deadline: 2008-01-03 01:15 Style: BPS Language Style: English UK Pages: 14 Sources: 24 Writer ID: 6746 INTRODUCTION: THE DOMAIN OF EVENT RELATED POTENTIALS IN NEUROPHYSIOLOGY Neurophysiology not only aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain but also relates to specific psychological processes. It places a particular emphasis on studying the cognitive effects of brain injury or neurological illness with a view to inferring models of normal cognitive functioning. According to Anthony Robbins, the author of the bestseller Awakening the Giant Within and world famous corporate trainer human movement of accomplishment refer to three essentials: Physiology, Language and Focus. These three aspects of human mind and their exhibition are complimentary to each other. For instance, a player feels winning spirit and his attitude reflects in his behavior via both mental and physiological perspectives. He uses the metaphor of positive beliefs through the language he uses and focuses tirelessly to translate his passion in indomitable reality. In psychology, Cognitive processes means functions such as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds. A specific instance of engaging in a cognitive process is a mental event. It is defined as different ways of experiencing and thinking about the world as "thinking", "feeling", "sensing" and "intuition". Cognitive control, and used by psychologists and neuroscientists to describe a loosely defined collection of brain processes whose role is to guide thought and behavior in accordance with internally generated goals or plans. Often, the executive functions are invoked when it is necessary to override responses that may otherwise be automatically elicited by stimuli in the external environment. It forecasts with a potentially rewarding stimulus, such as a tasty piece of chocolate cake, the automatic response might be to take a bite. The neural mechanisms by which the executive functions are implemented is a topic of ongoing debate in the field of cognitive neuroscience.Experimental psychologists and neuroscientists have discovered many different stimuli. The timing of these responses is thought to provide a measure of the timing of the brain's communication or time of information processing. Due to the consistency of the external response to novel stimuli, a brain-computer interface can be constructed which relies on it by arranging many signals in a grid, randomly STUDIES AND RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT IN EVENT RELATED POTENTIALS The ongoing electroencephalogram (EEG) provides a satisfactory scale for accessing temporal evolution of the brain activity associated with cognitive processes in health and disease. However, momentary changes in brain activity, as reflected in EEG, are rarely exploited due to lack of analytical tools and methodology. The electrodes covering the parietal lobe typically measure the P300 signal most strongly. The presence, magnitude, topography and time of this signal are often used as metrics of cognitive function in decision-making processes. While the neural substrates of this ERP remain hazy, the reproducibility of this signal makes it a common choice for psychological tests in both the clinic and the laboratory. Although the EEG signal is most strongly acquired around the parietal electrodes, interactions involving the frontal and temporal regions as well as several deep brain loci have been suggested. These components respond individually to different stimuli, and it has been suggested that the P300 originates from stimulus-driven frontal attention mechanisms during task processing. The P300 signal is an aggregate recording from a great many neurons In practice, the P300 waveform must be evoked using a stimulus delivered by one of the sensory modalities. One typical procedure is the 'oddball' paradigm, whereby a target stimulus is presented amongst more frequent standard background stimuli. A distracter stimulus may also be used to ensure that the response is due to the target rather than the change from a background pattern. Since the mid 1980's, one of the most discussed uses of ERPs such as the P300 is related to lie detection. In a proposed "guilty knowledge test" a subject is interrogated via the oddball paradigm much as they would be in a typical lie-detector situation. This practice has recently enjoyed increased legal permissibility while conventional polygraph has seen its use diminish, in part owing to the unconscious and uncontrollable aspects of the P300. The technique relies on reproducible elicitation of the P300 wave, central to the idea of a Memory and Encoding Related Multifaceted Electroencephalographic Response (MERMER) developed by Dr. Lawrence Farwell. Scientific research often relies on measurement of the P300 to examine event related potentials, especially with regard to decision making. Because cognitive impairment is often correlated with modifications in the P300, the waveform can be used as a measure for the efficacy of various treatments on cognitive function. Some have suggested its use as a clinical marker for precisely these reasons. There is a broad range of uses for the P300 in scientific research, ranging from study of depression and drug addiction to anxiety disorders (obsessive compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, etc). Applications in brain-computer interfacing have also been proposed. The P300 has a number of desirable qualities that aid in implementation of such systems. First, the waveform is consistently detectable and is elicited in response to precise stimuli. The P300 waveform can also be evoked in nearly all subjects with little variation in measurement techniques, which may help simplify interface designs and permit greater usability. The speed at which an interface is able to operate depends on how detectable the signal is despite "noise." One negative characteristic of the P300 is that the amplitude of the waveform requires averaging of multiple recordings to isolate the signal. One can use the P300 as a measure of the quality for cochlear implants, since a target sound will not register an event related potential if external hearing apparatus poorly transfers it. Auditory cues may provide a simpler method for generating ERPs as silence is simpler to recreate than complete lack of visual cues. Furthermore, the question of whether the brain is made aware of a visual cue is not simple. If visual processing can occur without the subject's awareness, further measures will need to be taken to determine the extents of the accompanying evoked potentials. Studies in these areas are gaining utmost attention these days. flashing the rows of the grid as in the previous paradigm. HOW DOES ELECTROTHERAPHY WORK: AN OBSERVATION Just as the activity in a computer can be perceived on multiple different levels, from the activity of individual transistors to the function of applications, so can describe the electrical activity of the brain on relatively small to relatively large scales. At one end are the action potentials in a single axon or currents within a single dendrite, and at the other end is the activity measured by the scalp EEG. An action potential in a pre-synaptic axon causes the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in a post-synaptic dendrite. The activity of many types of receptors results in a flow of ions into or out of the dendrite. This results in compensatory currents in the extra cellular space. It is these extra cellular currents which are responsible for the generation of EEG voltages. The EEG is not sensitive to axonal action potentials. Scalp EEG activity is comprised of multiple oscillations. These have different characteristic frequencies, spatial distributions and associations with different states of brain functioning such as awake vs. asleep. These oscillations represent synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The neuronal network underlying some of these oscillations is understood while many others are not. For instance, the system that generates the posterior basic rhythm still defies understanding. A routine clinical EEG recording typically lasts 20-40 minutes. During this time, it is common to perform different "activation procedures" which may evoke different activity than is seen during the resting awake state. These activation procedures include sleep, intermittent phonic stimulation with a strobe light, hyperventilation and eye closure. Continuous EEG monitoring typically involves the use of a portable EEG machine connected to an ICU patient to look for seizure activity that is not apparent clinically (i.e., in the patient's mental status or by observing his/her movements). In conventional scalp EEG, placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or paste obtain the recording, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin cells. Some systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are embedded; this is particularly common when high-density arrays of electrodes are needed.Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 10-20 system for most clinical and research applications. The EEG typically described in terms of (1) rhythmic activity and (2) transients. The rhythmic activity is divided into bands by frequency. To some degree, these frequency bands are a matter of nomenclature (i.e., any rhythmic activity between 8-12 Hz can be described as "alpha"), but these designations arose because rhythmic activity within a certain frequency range was noted to have a certain distribution over the scalp or a certain biological significance. COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS: A BROAD PERSPECTIVE OF THEIR MERITS AND DEMERITS Most people seeking therapy do not want to feel they way they have been feeling. The approaches that emphasize stoicism teach the benefits of feeling, at worst, calm when confronted with undesirable situations. They also emphasize the fact that we have our undesirable situations whether we are upset about them or not. If we are upset about our problems, we have two problems -- the problem, and our upset about it. Most people want to have the fewest number of problems possible. So when we learn how to more calmly accept a personal problem, not only do we feel better, but we usually put ourselves in a better position to make use of our intelligence, knowledge, energy, and resources to resolve the problem. British psychologist Donald Broadbent drew a distinction between 'automatic' and 'controlled' processes and introduced the notion of selective attention, to which executive functions are closely allied. In 1975, the US psychologist Michael Posner stated the term cognitive control in his book chapter entitled 'Attention and cognitive control'. The work of influential researchers such as Michael Posner, Joaquin Fuster, Tim Shallice and laid much of the groundwork for recent research into executive functions. The British neurophysiologist Tim Shallice similarly suggested that attention is regulated by a 'supervisory system', which can override automatic responses in favor of scheduling behavior based on plans or intentions. Throughout this period, a consensus emerged that this control system is housed in the anterior portion of the brain, the prefrontal cortex. Earl Miller and Jonathan Cohen published an influential article entitled 'An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function' in which they argue that cognitive control is the primary function of the PFC, and that control is implemented by increasing the gain of sensory or motor neurons that are engaged by task- or goal-relevant elements of the external environment. Miller and Cohen draw explicitly upon an earlier theory of visual attention, which conceptualizes perception of a visual scene in terms of competition among multiple representations - such as colors, individuals, or objects. Desimone and Duncan argue that the brain achieves this by selectively increasing the gain of neurons responsive to the color red, such that output from these neurons is more likely to reach a downstream processing stage, and consequently to guide behavior. This selective attention mechanism is in fact just a special case of cognitive control - one in which the biasing occurs in the sensory domain. Cognitive control is mediated by reciprocal connectivity among the sensory limbic, and motor cortices. Early studies employed event-related potentials reveals that electrical brain responses recorded over left and right visual cortex are enhanced when the subject is instructed to attend to the appropriate side of space. in a typical study, Liu presented subjects with arrays of dots moving to the left or right, presented in either red or green. Preceding each stimulus, an instruction cue indicated whether subjects should respond based on the color or the direction of the dots. Even though color and motion were present in all stimulus arrays in color-sensitive regions, was enhanced when subjects were instructed to attend to the color, and activity in motion-sensitive regions. Several studies have also reported evidence for the biasing signal prior to stimulus onset, with the observation that regions of the frontal cortex tend to come active prior to the onset of an expected stimulus. interactions along the perpendicular axis of the frontal cortex, arguing that a 'cascade' of interactions between anterior PFC, dorsolateral PFC, and pre-motor cortex guides behavior in accordance with past & present context, and current sensor motor associations respectively. ERP has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution. EEG is most sensitive to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those, which are generated in superficial layers of the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intracranial current source for a given ERP signal, as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred to as the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good estimates of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded currents. Most ERP paradigms involve a subject being provided a stimulus to react to either overtly or covertly. There are often at least two conditions that vary in some manner of interest to the researcher. As this stimulus-response is going on, an EEG is being recorded from the subject. The ERP is obtained by averaging the EEG signal from each of the trials within a certain condition; averages from one stimulus-response condition can then be compared with averages from the other stimulus-response condition(s). ERP has several strong sides as a tool of exploring brain activity; for example, its time resolution is very high . EEG measures the brain's electrical activity directly, while other methods record changes in blood flow. There are technical difficulties associated with combining these two modalities, including the need to remove of pulse artifact and ballistocardiographic artifact. JUNG'S PERCEPTION OF COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND ITS RELEVENT APPLICATIONS Carl Jung initially conceived the model in which cognitive functions combine in different ways to form different people's personalities in his pioneering work Psychological Types in 1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4. Jung also argued that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's personality -- the most important function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the progressively less important roles of "auxiliary", "tertiary" and "inferior". In addition, each mental function is seen as either introverted or extraverted known as attitudes. This idea is interpreted in terms of whether the person finds it more rewarding when using the function in question to have an outward focus on people and things or an inward focus on thoughts and ideas. These models do not claim that people are only capable of applying the function in question in that attitude, but rather that operating in the opposite attitude requires the expenditure of "energy" or rather, emotional resources, enthusiasm, and so on whilst operating in the person's natural attitude replenishes that same energy. First, the theory deals with cognitive, emotional aspects and aspects of behavior for understanding behavioral change. Second, the concepts of the Social Cognitive Theory provide ways for new behavioral research in health education. Finally, ideas for other theoretical areas such as psychology are welcome to provide new insights and understanding. Neuroscientists have discovered many different stimuli, which elicit reliable ERP from participants. The timing of these responses is thought to provide a measure of the timing of the brain's communication or time of information processing. For instance, in the checkerboard paradigm described above, in healthy participants the first response of the visual cortex is around 50-70 msec. Because of this general invariance concerning stimulus type, this ERP is understood to reflect a higher cognitive response to unexpected and/or cognitively salient stimuli. By arranging many signals in a grid, randomly flashing the rows of the grid as in the previous paradigm, and observing the P300 responses of a subject staring at the grid, the subject may communicate which stimulus he is looking at. Physicians and neurologists sometimes use a flashing visual checkerboard stimulus to test for any damage or trauma in the visual system. In a healthy person, this stimulus will elicit a strong response over the primary visual cortex located in the occipital lobe in the back of the brain. COGNITIVE DYSFUCTION: AN ANALYSIS Studies have shown a high incidence of neurocognitive deficit soon after surgery, but the deficits are transient with no permanent neurological impair. It primarily denotes the lack of sensory integration. Sensory integration is the ability to take in information through the senses of touch, movement, smell, taste, vision, and hearing, and to combine the resulting perceptions with prior information, memories, and knowledge already stored in the brain, in order to derive coherent meaning from processing the stimuli. The mid-brain and brainstem regions of the central nervous system are early centers in the processing pathway for sensory integration. These brain regions are involved in processes including coordination, attention, arousal, and autonomic function. After sensory information passes through these centers, it is then routed to brain regions responsible for emotions, memory, and higher-level cognitive functions. Sensory Dysfunction is a neurological disorder causing difficulties with processing information from the five classic senses vision, auditory, touch, olfaction, and taste. The sense of movement of vestibular system and the positional sense proprioception is sensed normally, but perceived abnormally. This is not the same as blindness or deafness, because, unlike those disorders tends to be analyzed by the brain in an unusual way that may cause distress or confusion. Such disorder are characteristic of other neurological conditions, including autism spectrum disorders, dyslexia, Developmental Dysphasia, Tourette's Syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and speech delays, among many others. Unlike many other neurological problems that require validation by a licensed psychiatrist or physician, this condition is most often diagnosed by an occupational therapist. Developmental pediatricians, pediatric neurologists, and child psychologists are increasingly diagnosing it. While it has not yet been included in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual as a discrete diagnosis, Regulatory-Sensory Processing Disorder is an accepted diagnosis in Stanley Greenspan's Diagnostic Manual for Infancy and Early Childhood. Sensory Dysfunction refers to the process by which the central nervous system attends to stimuli. This usually involves an orienting response. Sensory registration problems are characterized by failure to notice stimuli that ordinarily are salient to most people. Psychologists explain it as condition characterized by over responsivity in one or more systems. Further it correlates a gravitational insecurity when there is a tendency to react negatively and fearfully to movement experiences, particularly those involving a change in head position and movement backward or upward through space; (Case-Smith, (2005) Some psychologists argue that sensory related disorders may be misdiagnosed as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder but they can coexist, as well as emotional problems, aggressiveness and speech-related disorders such as apraxia. Sensory processing is foundational, like the roots of a tree, and gives rise to a myriad of behaviors and symptoms such as hyperactivity and speech delay. For example, a child with an under-responsive vestibular system may need extra input to his "motion sensor" in order to achieve a state of quiet alertness; to get this input, the child might fidget or run around, appearing ostensibly to be hyperactive, when in fact, he suffers from a sensory related disorder. Empirical evidences suggest that some gifted children also have an increased tendency toward hypersensitivity such as finding all shirt tags unbearable, which may be correlated with their greater intellectual proclivity toward perceiving the world in unconventional ways. While the diagnosis of sensory integration dysfunction is accepted widely among occupational therapists and educators, these professionals have been criticized for overextending a model that attempts to explain emotional and behavioral problems that could be caused by other conditions. Children who receive the diagnosis of sensory integration dysfunction should also be observed for signs of anxiety problems like food intolerances, and behavioral disorders, as well as for autism. Genetic problems such as Fragile X syndrome should be looked into as well. However, there is no proof for the idea that hypersensitivity would necessarily be a result of sensory integration issues. Ont eh other hand there is anecdotal evidence that sensory integration therapy results in more typical sensory responses and sensory processing. Temple Grandin has claimed that the deep pressure created by a cattle squeeze machine she used in her youth resulted in her being able to tolerate the affectionate hugs and touches she craved. CONCLUSION: WAYS TO HUMAN FOUNDATION OF BELIEF SYSTEM FOR DIDACTIC PURPOSES Information processing in the process of mind reflecting physical impact and vise verse became the dominant model in psychology for understanding mental processes. This provided an important theoretical basis for cognitive neuropsychological, as it allowed an explanation of what areas of the brain might be doing for instance, processing information in specific and specialized ways and also allowed brain injury to be understood in abstract terms as impairment in the information processing abilities of larger cognitive system. An Event-Related Potential or ERP is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus. It is brain response that directly the result of a thought or perception. ERPs can be reliably measured using electroencephalography (EEG), a procedure that measures electrical activity of the brain through the skull and scalp. This electrocephalography reflects thousands of simultaneously ongoing brain processes, the brain response to a certain stimulus or event of interest is usually not visible in the EEG. One of the most robust features of the ERP response is a response to unpredictable stimuli. This response-known as the P3 manifests as a positive deflection in voltage approximately 300 milliseconds after the stimulus is presented. In actual recording situations, it is difficult to see an ERP after the presentation of a single stimulus. Rather the most robust ERPs are seen after many dozens or hundreds of individual presentations are averaged together. This technique cancels out noise in the data allowing only the voltage response to the stimulus to stand out clearly. While evoked potentials reflect the processing of the physical stimulus, event-related potentials are caused by the "higher" processes, which might involve memory, expectation, attention or changes in the mental state, among others. Clinical psychologists record Sensory Evoked Potentials from the central nervous system following stimulation of sense organs or by or electrical stimulation of a sensory or mixed nerve in the periphery. They have been widely used in clinical diagnostic medicine since the 1970s, and in intraoperative neurophysiology monitoring known as surgical neurophysiology. Traditionally, emotion was not thought of as a cognitive process. This division is now regarded as largely artificial, and much research is currently being undertaken to examine the cognitive psychology of emotion; research also includes one's awareness of strategies and methods of cognition, known as metacognition. It purely describes behavior in terms of information flow or function. Relatively recent fields of study such as cognitive science and neurophysiology aim to find ways to treat mental disorder using cognitive paradigms to understand how the brain implements these information-processing functions or how pure information-processing systems (e.g., computers) can simulate cognition while comprehending the value of event related potentials. The wave originated vis a vis P300 is directly generated as the result of excitatory post-synaptic potentials generated via glutamatergic networks. There is some controversy over the anatomical substrates of the P300. Candidate structures include deep, closely spaced parts of the brain in the limbic system. Intracranial recordings have lent credence to the theory of widely distributed contributors. One hypothesis links the P300 to activation of the noradrenergic center of the brainstem found in the pons. In this view, the role of this noradrenergic circuit is to potentiate significant stimuli for executive decision-making. Recent evidence based on studies of the P300 suggests that both methods likely play in leading to an ERP. Thus, the P300 is not distinct from, but neither entirely explained by, the background dynamics of neural activity. The resetting of pre-existing oscillatory activity does not singularly cause it, but rather it is affected by and affects such activity. Both explanations fit with the leading explanation for gross P300 behavior, the context updating hypothesis. The P300 is thought in this model to represent the physical change undergone when probabilities tied to certain outcomes are refreshed in light of the subject's most recent contextual information FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS ERP- event related potentials EEG- electroencephalography P300- a wave to function event related potentials REFERENCES 1. Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II: Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190. 2. Posner, M.I., & Snyder, C.R.R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. Solso (ed.), Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 3. Posner, M.I. & Petersen, S.E. (1990) The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25-42 4. Shallice, T. (1988). From neuropsychology to mental structure, Cambridge: CUP. 5. Miller, E.K. & Cohen, J.D. (2001). 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