Role of Biology in Contemporary Criminological Thinking - Essay Example

An Evaluation of the Importance of Biology in Contemporary Criminological Thinking Considering the biological factor in any crime is ever becoming more relevant in today's study of crime. As more and more studies have concluded that a person's biochemistry would eventually affect how he might behave. Recent explosive development in the field genetic engineering further shed light on role of genes and heredity in determining one's probability to commit crimes. Advances in the field of neurology also established lots of connections between a person's brain structure or defects and the probability to commit crime. Biological theories on crime The notion that biological factors can incline a person to commit crime has been suggested by the Positivist School of criminology and it was Cesare Lombroso who contributed much to the development of the Positivist school of criminology. Cesare Lombroso was an Italian prison doctor during the 19th century who later to be known as the 'father of criminology'. Cesare Lombroso suggested that physiological features such as cheek bones, hairline, or cleft palate are indication of one's inclination to criminal acts. Lombroso's approach was greatly influenced by the theory of phrenology and by the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin. However, such theories were later taken over by the modern day theory on genetics and chemistry as influencing factors in one's inclination to behavioural crime ("Criminology", 2006). Lombroso furthered his studies with statistical analysis wherein he identified more 'Watavistic stigmata', as well as the immorality of efficiency in the approach of born criminals. Lombroso proposed the fair treatment of offenders by suggesting rehabilitation instead of harsh punishment. Despite Lombroso being the forerunner of criminology, his studies became the foundation of movements such as the eugenics during the 20th century. Today, Lombroso's research is no more the basis of modern criminology; however, psychology as well as psychiatry has used his theory in identifying crime potential of an individual independent of his surrounding environment ("Casare Lombroso", 2006). Ever since, medicine has been involve in the study of crime and its related problems. Medical studies such as physiognomy and phrenology which found the interconnection of the shape of the skull to the way mind think and behave. These theories were popular because they relieve the blame of the cause of crime from the hands of the government and the society as a whole, rather the blame is placed on the offender themselves who were biologically predispose to commit a crime which have distinct features from peaceful citizens. Modern studies only relate the body structure to crime due to the fact that people with stronger features can do more harm physically, however, with regards to studies such as by Lombroso is no longer being adopted. The new studies on genetics further showed evidence in the genetic cause of crime as chromosome and some genes that predispose one to commit crime were identified. However, further studies on twin, family, and adoption proved no direct link of genetic factor to crimes being committed ("Positivist school", 2006). Thereby propelled the nature vs. nurture debate further. Genetic factors More and more studies have shown that genes play a big role in aggressive behaviour of individual. One such study was conducted by Philip Vernon and colleagues wherein they have studied 247 adult twin pairs. 183 were identical twins and 64 others are fraternal twins. The subjects were examined with the use of 18 aggression measurements. Their analyses, they say, 'revealed that multiple measures of different dimensions of aggressive behaviour have moderate to quite large heritabilities'. Moreover, they say, 'there appears to be substantial overlap between genes associated with different types of aggression' ("Strong genetic influence on aggression seen", 2000; Vernon et al, 1999, p.16-21). Another twin study also confirms studies that proved the genetic factor in aggressive behaviour, sadness, lack of concentration, and anxiety. James Hudziak et al. examined 492 pairs of twins, wherein a checklist was filled out by each parent of the twins. The aim of the study was to determine the genetic and environmental influencing factors of behaviour. The studies concluded that 'estimates of genetic influences on attention problems (60 to 68 percent), aggression (70 to 77 percent), and anxious/depressed behaviors (61 to 65 percent) were high for both sexes,' and indicate that 'at least half of the variability in these syndromes is attributable to genetic influences' ("Genes and aggression", 2001; Hudziak et al, 2000, p.469-476). Another research conducted by a group of Dutch researchers also confirms significant influence of genetic factors on aggressive and criminal behaviours. Edwin J.C.G. van den Oord et al. studied 221 pairs of unconnected children which were adopted and compared them to 111 pairs of connected children who had been together during adoption. The study suggested that amongst the children, "genetic influences was responsible for 70% of the discrepancy of violent behaviour," whilst a heritability of 39% was responsible for criminal behavior. "For attention problems," they say, "genetic influences accounted for 47% of the variance, whereas shared environmental influences were very small." Unlike several other researchers, however, van den Oord et al. found only weak genetic influences on anxiety, depression, and withdrawal. ("Adoptee Study: Genes play a role", 1995; van den Oord, 1994). Biochemistry factors Modern studies have shown that there are many biological factors that influence behaviour. One such factor is the Hormones. Hormones, being produced by endocrine glands, are actually messengers that have significant influence on human behaviour by conducting brain activities that impact how a person react to a given environmental factors. Hormones further contribute to the way a person behaves even after the environmental factor have subsided. The research on the effects of glands on criminal behaviour has been conducted by the field of criminology since 1928 with the publication of Schlapp and Smith's The New Criminology. Schlapp and Smith believe that offenders are more likely to have disorders with their glands ("PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY", 2005). Moreover, Testosterone has always been an important issue in criminology. Testosterone has been associated to offending behaviours, and numerous female offenders were also blamed on female menstrual cycle. It is widely suggested that increased levels of testosterone would minimise an individual's interaction socially which would eventually made an individual more of a loner and further being deviant of the norms of society. Female menstrual cycles have always been associated with the changes of female behaviour during the occurrence of menstrual periods. Studies showed that 70% of female offenders committed their offenses while experiencing the discomfort of PMS. 53% of female offenders committed crime before menstruation and 17% of them offended during the menstrual period ("PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY", 2005) There are also numerous studies that suggested the role of some biochemical's in influencing aggressive behaviour. On such important chemical is serotonin. There are rising proofs that associate unusual levels of serotonin, a chemical in the brain, to offending behaviour, suicide and numerous unusual character or behaviour. At least three fresh studies also confirm that notion that there are association between serotonin and offending behaviour. One of them is the group of Alan Unis et al. Alan Unis et al. conducted research on subjects such as boys ranging from 13 to 17 years old. The subjects were 'juvenile offenders', and most of them were diagnosed with 'conduct disorder-symptoms' ("Serotonin, aggression: Evidence Mounts, 1997; Unis et al, 1997, p.553-559). The study concluded that the serotonin levels are much in high levels in juvenile offenders with 'childhood-onset conduct disorder-the most severe form of the disorder-than in those whose behavior problems began in adolescence'. Furthermore, Unis et al. discovered the connection between the blood serotonin levels and the seriousness of the juveniles' offenses both in the past and in the present. Those with much higher level of serotonin in the blood were more socially maladjusted. These conclusions compliments research studies conducted by the group of Pliszka et al. Pliszka et al discovered a connection between the ratings of behaviour disorder with the levels of serotonin in the blood of juvenile offenders. The researchers say, 'Our findings are consistent with a relationship between [serotonin] dysregulation and aggressive behaviour in incarcerated adolescent boys with conduct disorder, particularly of childhood onset' (Serotonin, Aggression: Evidence mounts", 1997; Unis et al, 1997, p.553-559). Another research conducted by Anthony Cleare and Alyson Bond concluded that even with males of no psychiatric disorders developed aggressive behaviour during the lowest point of their serotonin level. The researchers say, 'provide modest support for the theory of a link between reduced serotonergic activity and increased trait aggression in healthy males'. No similar correlation was seen in female subjects ("Serotonin, Aggression: Evidence mounts", 1997; Unis et al, 1997, p.553-559). A more recent study by Antonia New and colleagues also confirms the connection of serotonin levels with offending behaviour. New et al. studied the reactions of 97 patients with behaviour disorder to a 'fenfluramine challenge'. Those with records of attempted suicide showed abnormal 'serotonergic system'. New et al. further theorize that 'self-injurious behavior, like suicidal behavior, represents a form of self-directed aggression, and may be associated with a decrease in central serotonin function' ("Serotonin, Aggression: Evidence mounts", 1997; Unis et al, 1997, p.553-559). Neurological factors Neurotransmitters are also significant chemicals that affect behaviour of an individual. Neurotransmitters permit for the transmission of electrical impulses in the brain and allow the brain to 'process information'. Neurotransmitters are associated with the 'Central Nervous System and higher-order cognitive functioning'. Thus, captured the interest from criminologist who wants to know the interconnection of the brain with abnormal personality and psychopathic tendencies. It has been widely believe that alcoholism and drug dependence are link with the increase or decrease in the brain's level of neurotransmitter. A person's neurotransmitter levels are also genetically program at birth; however, it can be influenced by stress or food intake ("PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY", 2005) Anneliese Pontius has studied mostly on the phenomenon of unreasonable offenses committed by formerly peaceful individuals who mostly do not have recollection conducting criminal offenses. Anneliese Pontius conclusion those persons who 'suffer from seizures originating in the limbic system, a primitive part of the brain are involved in emotion, memory, and survival instincts' ("An explanation.", 2003; Pontius and LeMay, 2003, p. 245-257). In a fresh study, Pontius concluded that most aggressive behaviours come from 'chronic, intermittent stimulation of the vagus nerve occurring in vulnerable individuals'. 'In her new study, Pontius examined six in a row referred males after they had convictions for felony for abnormal aggressive behaviours. The study concluded that all of them have histories of brain injuries and seizures as evident in performed EEG ("An explanation.", 2003; Pontius and LeMay, 2003, p. 245-257). Pontius study also concluded that five out of the six men had records of 'recurrent nasopharyngeal infections', and she further suggested that these 'infections caused intermittent mild stimulation of the vagus nerve'. 'Supportive evidence shows that experimental vagus stimulation has the most excitatory impact on hippocampus and amygdala," she says, "which are also the most susceptible to limbic seizure kindling by intermittent subthreshold stimuli' ("An explanation.", 2003; Pontius and LeMay, 2003, p. 245-257). Psychiatrist Kenneth Tardiff also suggested that certain brain disorders such as brain tumors, brain infections, toxins, and thyroid disorders could lead to unusual or aggressive behaviour. Tardiff cites the example of a boy who used to have 'temporal lobe seizures and developed personality changes with aggressive behavior, emotional tension, and withdrawal'. This led for the boy to acquire depression and delusions and later admitted to the hospital and died after going through a coma. His autopsy showed that the main cause of his unusual behaviour which is a tumor in the right 'hippocampus' ("Violence detecting its cause is critical", 1999; Tardiff, 1998, p. 567-576). Thyroid disorders also have an impact on human behaviour according to Tardiff. Tardiff examines a 31 year old seaman who 'had most of his thyroid gland removed years earlier because of hyperthyroidism'. The subject later experienced depression and become paranoid and suspecting that his shipmates are planning to rape him. However, when encouraged to take back on his medicine for his thyroid, he improved fully from his paranoid feelings and delusion ("Violence detecting its cause is critical", 1999; Tardiff, 1998, p. 567-576). Other brain disorders that according to Tardiff can cause aggressive beahviour could include Wilson's disease, Huntington's disease, hyperparathyroidism, vitamin deficiencies, limbic encephalitis, and sleep disorders. Tardiff further suggest that whilst these disorders 'generally present with clear-cut medical and neurological symptoms, occasionally psychiatric symptoms may present alone with the aggression and violence, which points out the importance of complete medical psychiatric evaluations of patients who present with recent histories of violent behavior' ("Violence detecting its cause is critical", 1999; Tardiff, 1998, p. 567-576). One good example of possible biological influence on crime behaviour is that of Theodore Robert Bundy (November 24, 1946 - January 24, 1989). Theodore Robert Bundy was a famous serial killer and rapist who murdered number women on various locations in the U.S. His father was believed to be mentally unstable and predispose to violent behaviour. Theodore Robert Bundy himself was reportedly to have aggressive behaviour during childhood such as 'smiling as he brandished several knives and laid them beside her on the bed' ("Ted bundy, 2006). Biology is a relevant explanation of crime and offending Undoubtedly, biology provided an explanation on why crime is being committed today. Numerous studies have already confirm that genetic, biochemistry, and neurological factors all have an effect on the ability of one to commit a crime. However, it would always boils down to the issue of Nature vs. nature. The nature vs. nurture debate has been continuing for a long time. Rene Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher, also suggested that there are certain natural factors that influence a person's reaction to environmental stimuli. On the contrary Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, both British philosophers, took a different view by suggesting that environmental factors played a more significant role in the development of human behaviour ("nature vs. nurture debate or controversy", n.d.). The recent conclusion by the Australian Institute of Criminology's Trends and Issues series further proved what has long been suggested that abuse and negligence of children are most likely a significant factor in developing an aggressive behaviour amongst them. 'A growing body of research evidence drawn from studies of individual families suggests that economic and social stress exert their effects on crime by disrupting the parenting process', said Australian Institute of Criminology Director, Dr Adam Graycar ("What causes youth crime", 1998). Modern criminology has substantial unwillingness to embrace the aid of biological theories to explanation of crimes. However, reasonable explanation of criminality should embrace all available evidences. Contemporary criminological thinking suggests that there are association between environment and the continuous brain activity. It is believed that human behaviours are a result of the activities and decisions of the mind which eventually based in the brain, which is by itself a biological component of an individual. Moreover, the brain itself is affected by biochemicals such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and numerous chemicals especially within a person's blood. This belief further enhanced the notion that indeed biology as well as biochemistry plays an important role in aggressive behaviour ("Biological roots of Behavior, n.d.). Conclusion Identifying Biological factors in crime is essential in crime prevention, however, such knowledge could not be use to prosecute individuals before they commit the crime. For biological factors, even though it provide a clear explanation of crime, will remain as a potential unless triggered by environmental factors such as poverty, parenting, and neighbourhoods that are crime-prone. Nature and nurture have to be present in order for crime to be committed. What biological factor could contribute if it is not triggered by a stimuli, and the same is true with environment, it can not cause a person to commit crime if the person don't have the biological factors in him that would enable him to react in an aggressive way to a given stimuli. However, for believers of biological theories that aim to give explanation of crime, the impact of the surroundings on one's aggressive behaviours has been overwhelming, and research suggesting that biological elements contribution of criminal behaviour has been meticulously questioned on scientific reasoning. Despite overwhelming evidence of environmental influence on offending behaviour, biological factors should not be neglected as an explanation of human offending behaviour (Biological roots of behavior, n.d.) References "ADOPTEE STUDY: GENES PLAY A ROLE." (1995). Crime Times, Vol. 1, No. 3, Page 6. Retrieved February 19, 2006, from http://www.crime-times.org/titles.htm. "AN EXPLANATION FOR "INEXPLICABLE" ACTS." (2003). Crime Times, Vol. 9, No. 4, page 2&7. Retrieved February 19, 2006, from http://www.crimetimes.org/titles.htm "Biological Roots of Behavior." (n.d.) Major Principles of Biological ,chapter 5,Theories Prentice-Hall, Inc.A Simon & Schuster Company. 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