Thai Buddhism History - Essay Example

Introduction Over the years different social movements and political changes have induced modifications in religions also. Religions have reinvented or renewed their practices to adapt to these social changes. In this essay, it will be shown how Buddhism in Thailand and Shinto in Japan have undergone changes in recent years. Thai Buddhism History The roots of Thai Buddhism lie with the religious movement started by Siddhartha in the sixth century B.C. Buddhism had gained widespread popularity in Asia by the third century B.C. Consequently, there were different interpretations of the Buddha's teachings resulting in foundation of several sects. One of these sects was the Theravada Buddhism which emerged in the first century A.D. and reached Thailand around the sixth century A.D. In the thirteenth century A.D. Theravada Buddhism was made the state religion only with the establishment of the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai (Tuchrello, William P. Thailand: A Country Study.) By the nineteenth century, and especially with the coming to power in 1851 of King Mongkut, who had been a monk himself for twenty-seven years, the Buddhist sangha, became more centralized and hierarchical in nature and its links to the state more institutionalized. During his reign, Thai Buddhism saw several major changes. Mongkut launched a reform movement that later became the foundation for an altogether new order of monks called Dhammayuttika order of monks. Under this reform, all practices that had no authority other than custom were abandoned, canonical regulations were to be followed in true spirit and the guidelines were intended to improve an individual's attainment of nirvana. This sect was not only more rigorous in terms of discipline, but was also adopted by only a small minority of monasteries and monks. Further, the administrative and sangha reforms that Mongkut initiated were continued by his successor. In 1902 King Chulalongkorn (Rama V, 1868-1910) made the new sangha hierarchy formal and permanent through the Sangha Law of 1902, which remained the foundation of sangha administration in modern Thailand (Tuchrello, William P. Thailand: A Country Study.) Influences on Thai Buddhism Thai Buddhism has been influenced by three major forces have. The most prominent and popular influence is that of the Theravada school of Buddhism, imported from Sri Lanka. While there are significant local and regional variations, the Theravada school forms the basis of all the major themes of Thai Buddhism. By tradition Pali is the language of religion in Thailand. And all the Buddhist scriptures are recorded in Pāli, using either the modern Thai script or the older Khom and Tham scripts. The second major influence on Thai Buddhism is Hindu beliefs received from Cambodia, particularly during the Sukkoth period. Vedic Hinduism played significant role in setting up of the early Thai institution of kingship. It also influenced the creation of laws and order for Thai society as well as Thai religion. Infact, some of the modern Buddhist rituals followed in Thailand, are derived from Hindu rituals and practices. An attempt to attract favours from local spirits known as phi gave rise to Folk religion in Thailand. This is the third major influence on Thai Buddhism. Despite a stark demarcation between Buddhism and Folk Religion in urban areas of Thailand, the two are very closely related in rural areas. (Tambiah, Stanley, 1970) In recent times, Chinese immigrants have induced Mahayana on the Thai Buddhism. While some Chinese have "converted" to the Thai-style Theravada Buddhism, many others maintain their own separate temples in the East Asian Mahayana tradition. The growing popularity of the goddess Kuan Yin  in Thailand can be attributed to the Chinese Mahayanist presence in Thailand. (Terwiel, B.J., 1976) Reformation of Thai Buddhism The most prominent reformation in Thai Buddhism occurred during the reign of King Mongkut. The king, also popular as Rama IV, pioneered the reform movement of Thai Buddhism. The era of King Mongkut is considered equivalent to the European Renaissance. During his reign, the king was faced with three major problems, Colonialism, Christianity, and Western Science. Faced with these challenges that threatened to uproot the very roots of Siamese society and Buddhism, King Mongkut eventually relied on Buddhism to not only save the state but also give Thai Buddhism a new meaning all together. The credit for initiating the reform of Thai Buddhism goes to King Mongkut who introduced a bi-directional reform movement, doctrinal reform and institutional reform that were implemented simultaneously. (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) Doctrinal Reform of Thai Buddhism To reform Buddhism doctrinally, King Mongkut adopted Rationalism for reinterpreting Thai Buddhism to make the religion more logical. He reduced the miraculous, supernatural, superstitious and fortune telling elements—especially in remote and rural areas. (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) The doctrinal reform of Thai Buddhism was initially carried by monks of the newly established Dhammayutika Nikaya founded by King Mongkut. Further, the king persuaded boys from the royal class to ordain as bhikkhus and carry forward the religious reforms initiated by him. In the reign of King Chulalongkorn, the successor of King Mongkut, a modern educational system was introduced for the first time in Siamese society. In order to educate people throughout the country, King Chulalongkorn transformed all Buddhist monasteries into schools and ordained all monks as teachers. The reform caught on quickly with the common people who flocked monastries to learn the religious languages, the true essence of the religion and about the Thai culture. As this educational system developed further, more specialized subjects, such as Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, History and Foreign were introduced in the monasteries. Since this required more professional teachers, schools gradually branched out from the monasteries. Though the branching off meant more focus on worldly knowledge rather than Buddhist ethics, the modern educational system empowered common people with higher knowledge. (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) As the Siamese society became more modernized, sons of the noble class refrained from ordaining as monks for life. The shortage of noble-class monks prompted the Dhammayut Nikaya to ordain common men into their order of privilege. Thus, the reform of Buddhism in the later period continued for the most part because of the Mahanikaya monks who had received a higher education. These monks belonged to a common background, maintained a distance from the central power structures, and had highly liberal ideology. Institutional Reform of Thai Buddhism Inspired by the hierarchical structure of the Catholic Church and Christianity in the Vatican in Rome, King Mongkut introduced a similar hierarchy in the Sangha’s structure in Siamese society. Using his own political structure as a model, King Mongkut initiated a second program of reform, namely, institutional reform of Thai Buddhism. According to the political structure adapted by King Mongkut, following was to be the hierarchal structure: Kingdom Religious Realm 1. King 1. Supreme Patriarch 2. Nobility 2. Dhammayutika Nikaya 3. People 3. Monks (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) The head of the Kingdom was the King, and corresponding to this, the head of the Religious Realm was the Supreme Patriarch. This Sangha hierarchical structure modeled on the political structure of the Monarchy in Siam was promulgated by King Chulalongkorn as the First Sangha Act in 1902. The structure was further modified after the 1932 Revolution replaced the Absolute Monarchy with Democracy. In 1941 the Piboon Songkhram government thus promulgated the Second Sangha Act according to a political structure of Democracy and modeled the hierarchal structure as follows: Kingdom Religious Realm 1. Parliament 1. Sangha Parliament 2. Prime Minister & 2. Sangha Prime Minister & Cabinet Sangha Cabinet 3. Court 3. Sangha Court The Democracy led kingdom had a Parliament to create laws, and the Religious Realm had a Sangha Parliament (Sangha-sabha) to establish Sangha laws. The Kingdom had a Prime Minister and a Cabinet for governing the country, while the Religious Realm had a Sangha Prime Minister (Sangha-nayaka) and a Sangha Cabinet to administrate over the Sangha. (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) In 1958, after the Sarit Thanarat’s coup, Sarit abolished the Democratic Sangha Act. However, in 1962, Sarit promulgated the Third Sangha Act that modeled the following structure: Kingdom Religious Realm 1. Military Leader 1. Supreme Patriarch 2. Cabinet 2. Maha-thera-samakhama 3. People 3. Monks The kingdom had a military dictator as the leader, therefore, the Religious Realm had the Supreme Patriarch as the leader. The military dictator appointed his own Cabinet to control people all over the country, whereas the Maha-thera-samakhama, meaning Society of Great Senior Monks, were appointed to help the Supreme Patriarch to control monks in the Thai Sangha. (Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat, 2004) In 1992, Thailand was in under the military dictatorship of Suchinda Khraprayoon. This short-lived military government further amended the Third Sangha Act. The Third Sangha Act of 1962 amended in 1992 became dictatorial in-nature. Neither did it encourage change nor promoted respect for seniority through meritorious accomplishments. Since the act only emphasized on longevity of position, it failed to solve the problems that the Sangha faced. Though King Mongkut’s doctrinal reform of Buddhism have been quite successful, institutional reforms have lost their impact due to numerous political changes in the country that impacted the hierarchal structure of the Sangha. Thai Buddhist teachings are profound, modern, and have widely captured the interest of well-educated people in Thai society. Shinto in Japan Shinto, meaning the way of the gods, is the oldest indigenous faith of the Japanese people. Deeply rooted in Japanese traditions, unlike other religions, Shinto does not have a founder nor does it have sacred scriptures. According to Shinto beliefs, the gods known as kami are sacred spirits which take the form of things that important to sustain life, such as wind, rain, mountains, trees, rivers and fertility. Introduction of Buddhism in Japan had its impact on Shinto, and despite initial conflicts, the two religions have successfully coexisted in Japan. In the Meiji Period, Shinto was made Japan's state religion while the Shinto priests became state officials. During this era, prominent Shinto shrines began receiving governmental funding. Further, Japan’s creation myths were exploited for fostering an emperor cult, and continual efforts were made to separate and emancipate Shinto from Buddhism. After World War II, Shinto and the state were separated. (http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2056.html) Despite closely associated with the Japanese history, Shinto has undergone several reforms to adapt to the changing social milieu. Shinto in Present Day Japan Even today Shinto remains a prominent source of spirituality and faith for the Japanese people who seek support from Shinto by praying at a home altar or by visiting shrines. A large number of wedding ceremonies are conducted in Shinto style. Death, however, is considered a source of impurity in Shinto and is dealt with in the Buddhist tradition. (http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2056.html) Social Changes and Shinto Reforms In order understand how social change impacted the Shinto tradition; it is essential to consider the position of Shinto in postwar Japanese society. The first signs of modernization in Shinto were witnessed during the Meiji period. Shinto underwent two great changes in the modern period. The first is the aftermath of political change, while the second emerged from new currents being formed in the religious world. The two political watersheds that occurred in the modern period- the Meiji Restoration and the administrative reforms following World War II- had a severe impact on status of Shinto. The Meiji government's policies seeked the separation of Buddhism from Shinto and promoted a modern imperial institution that had great impact on the Shinto practices. This modern Shrine Shinto branched off from the traditional Shinto and launched a new stream of Shinto sects that quickly gained popularity.( Modern and Contemporary Shinto, Encyclopedia of Shinto) Similarly, Shinto was greatly impacted by the various administrative chages tht tookplace post world war II. Freedom of religion and separation of religion from the state were some of the reforms that had a great bearing on Shinto. Further, placing of Shinto on the same footing as other religions by forcing shrines to become religious juridical persons under the Religious Corporations Ordinance and later Law induces major religious changes. (http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=738) As an aftermath, many new Shinto sects and Shinto-derived new religions came into being from the period around the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration (1868). Two prominent historical events, the Shinto Directive issued by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in 1945 and the Constitution that took effect in 1947, forced Shinto to reform and adapt to the new social-political setup. The aim of this Directive was to abolish all shrine-related laws issued since the 1871. The Shinto Directive had several impacts on the traditional practices. Firstly, the directive denied Shinto the status of a national faith calling it fictitious and demanded that all knowledge on Shinto be removed from educational programs. The directive further entailed a denial of the view of the national polity held by the Japanese people and held Shinto practices responsible for forcing Japan into a war and chopping off all ties between the state and its history.( UEDA Kenji, Contemporary Social Change and Shinto Tradition) The directives further ordered the termination of all government funds for Shinto shrines and rituals. This resulted in the end of public character of the Shinto shrines. Post the directives, the Association of Shinto Shrines worked hard to restore Shinto to its lost status and to revitalize the old tradition. However, the Shrines reconstituted themselves under the newly established Religious Corporations Ordinance and on February 3, 1946, the Association of Shinto Shrines was set up. In 1953, however, the entire shrine world devoted its collective efforts to the fifty-ninth Regular Removal of the Grand Shrines of Ise and its successful completion led to a sense of revival for Shinto shrines. Further, Japanese living conditions stabilized by 1955, and as a result many shrines prospered back into their pre war status. In addition, after the war, the shrines were engaged in Shinto funerals and other religious activities that had been severely restricted before the war. The renewed popularity of Shinto weddings and assorted rites enabled the shrines to gather greater fortune than before the war. Therefore, the era of high economic growth that started from 1955 in Japan exerted many positive effects on shrines, but at the same time, shrines were forced to confront urbanization and depleting rural population. Urbanization and industrialization introduced newer lifestyles, which in turn modified Shinto practices and its annual events. Shinto festivals have lost their religious meaning and have become civic propagandas. But this does not mean that communities and regional society have ceased to function. Festivals remain one of the most significant elements of Japanese culture, and they have retained strong roots through the modern period. The agricultural population that comprised eighty percent of Japan's total, has now shrunk to less than ten percent. As a result, folk Shinto, which had been deeply connected to rice agriculture, has gradually lost its original substance. Urbanization and industrialization also influenced Shinto. Conclusion Citing the growth of Buddhism in Thailand and Shinto in Japan, this essay shows how social and political changes impact religious reforms. Impacted by the changes in the social milieu of a country, the religions renovate themselves to adapt to the new set up. This may induce new practices into that religion, or branch off a new form of religion all together. The case of Thai Buddhism and Shinto reflect how religions have become contemporarized to match up with the changing world. References: 1. Dr. Tavivat Puntarigvivat , 200 Years After King Mongkut’s Birth: A Review of Reform Movements in Thai Buddhism 2. Encyclopedia of Shinto 3. Jim Taylor, Cyber-Buddhism and Changing Urban Space in Thailand 4. http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2056.html 5. http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=738 6. Tambiah, Stanley (1970). Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand. Cambridge University Press 7. Terwiel, B.J. (May 1976). "A Model for the Study of Thai Buddhism". Journal of Asian Studies 8. Tuchrello, William P. "The Society and Its Environment" (Religion: Historical Background section). Thailand: A Country Study. 9. UEDA Kenji, Contemporary Social Change and Shinto Tradition Read More