The Role of Women in Religion throughout History - Case Study Example

The Role of Women in Religion throughout History Outline: A) Introduction B) General Discussion: i. Christianity ii. Judaism iii. Islam iv. Hinduism v. Buddhism C) Conclusion Foreword: This paper is dedicated to the role of women in religions throughout history and provides a brief survey of five major religions of the world. For many centuries women were tied to their homes and families and could participate in religious movements only within the boundaries permitted by men. Notwithstanding all the limitations, women were widely engaged in religious activity and continued protesting against male dominance. At that most of the religions began with the statement of equality of the sexes. Moreover, the role of women was very significant to the success of the religions. However, as time passed, the conditioned changed. The paper highlights the main events in the development of the religions from the position of the female roles in the process. Thesis: Though most of the religions began as ones serving both male and female interests, in the course of time and as a result of male dominance, the initial messages were distorted, depriving women of economic, social and religious rights. Let us imagine that aliens arrived to the Earth to get acquainted with the humanity. In order to understand people better, it was decided that the envoys should be incarnated as human, being born as usual girls and boys. The agents were to have enough freedom to move, think and speak, make decisions and choices of their own, – to put it in the nutshell, have all the opportunities for work and research of the complex subject on study – the mankind. Several well-trained agents were prepared. However, the question was where they should be born. The population of the Earth was known for having numerous religions, differing in content and messages. These religions played a vital role in the life of the national, ethnic and racial societies, uniting them, dictating norms of behavior, obligations and restrictions. The significance of the religions was so great that for many centuries religious communities stood at the top of the social ladder and were responsible for numerous wars and fights in the name of Gods. By the time the agents were to be incarnated, the Earth calendar declared the beginning of the twenty-first century. Most of the countries had secular societies, ruled by leading political parties. Yet, religious views continued influencing the decisions of policy-makers. After making some research on religions, the aliens were a bit puzzled. They could easily place their male agents in most any part of the world, but they had some apprehensions as to the female agents. It seemed preferable to send them in the families of non-believers, somewhere in Europe or North America, while otherwise the agents risked losing control of the situation and be strongly restricted by the religions. Though most of the religions began as ones serving both male and female interests, in the course of time, as a result of male dominance the initial messages were distorted, religions playing in the hands of one sex, and being rather harmful for the other one. Here are some of the findings done by the aliens. They concern the major religions of the planet. Christianity Old Testament taught that women were to be considered as male property. The revolutionary message of equality of the sexes was brought by Jesus, God’s son, and was spread by his disciples, 12 apostles, especially Paul. However, later the status of women was gradually lowered again by the church leaders, which was registered in the New Testament that was believed to be written down in Paul’s name after his death. The denigration of women continued throughout centuries, and even in the twentieth century church leaders stated the inferior status of women. The Bible is full of verses belittling and demeaning women, emphasizing the male dominance: "Wives be subject to your husbands as you are to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife just as Christ is the head of the church, the body of which he is the Savior. Just as the church is subject to Christ, so also wives ought to be, in everything, to their husbands" (Ephesians 5.22-24 NRSV, in Fortune and Enger 2005).   St. Tertullian (160-220 CE) claimed: “Do you not know that you are each an Eve? … You are the Devil's gateway: You are the unsealer of the forbidden tree: You are the first deserter of the divine law…You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of your desert even the Son of God had to die” (Quoted in Armstrong 1986). “What is the difference whether it is in a wife or a mother, it is still Eve the temptress that we must beware of in any woman......I fail to see what use woman can be to man, if one excludes the function of bearing children”, - echoed St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) (In Armstrong 1986). Even such a prominent church leader and reformer as Martin Luther described physical violence over his wife. “If a woman grows weary and at last dies from childbearing, it matters not. Let her die from bearing, she is there to do it,” – wrote Luther (Quoted in Gaylor 1993). Christians treated women as second-class citizens, referring to female as “harlots” and “whores” (typical bible labels) that have satanic, evil powers of allurement, demonstrating contempt for female body and reproductive functions. At the same time, women were considered having no right to make abortions or use anesthesia during childbirth, were restricted in economic, social and sexual rights (Gaylor 1993). Though things have changed greatly in the latest decades, most of the Christian groups continue keeping to these traditional views. It is interesting to trace the history of the development of the modern Christian views. In fact, the diminishing attitude towards female sex was characteristic with pagans. At the beginning of Christianity, it played a crucial role to its success, making Greco-Roman women join the new religion, believes Rodney Stark (1995). Then new movement provided women with opportunities of changing their lives for the better. Numerous ancient sources demonstrate that Athenian and Roman women had hard life. They were viewed as property of men (first fathers, then husbands), and had no right to live independently, being forced to marry at early ages (often at 11-12, even before pubescence) and to remarry in case of their husbands’ death. They could not arrange their properties, leave home without permission, had no access to learning, etc. How strange it may sound for the modern ear, female population was outnumbered by the male one (about 140 males per 100 females). This was the result of legal and morally accepted infanticide of females. Women were also forced to make abortions (cynical jokes of history) and often perished as a result of this procedure. In order to escape such a fate and gain freedom, women converted to Christianity, which made them hostesses of their lives: now they could marry at 20 to a chosen man and had more marital security and equality, were protected from sexual harassment, killing their children and abortions, prohibited by the new religion. Moreover, they got access to libraries and knowledge, could occupy high positions in the religious hierarchy. During the first five centuries women made the major part of Christians, men being only secondary converts (Stark 1995). Women continued having religious power until the medieval period. The brightest example is Hildegard of Bingen, founder of her own monastery and author of numerous writings on theology, science and medicine, poetess and composer, prophetess and visionary, the Doctor of Church, described as “Dear Abby of the twelfth century”, having the most powerful people of her times as correspondents. With the rise of universities, women were banned from learning theology, philosophy and sacred scriptures. This gave basis to a new movement of mysticism, represented by thousands of women, Julian of Norwich (b. 1342), Catherine of Siena (b. 1347), and Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) among them (Joy 2002). Women played a decisive role in the religious life of North America. The family model accepted by New England puritans and Virginian Anglicans since the 16th century gave women certain authority (though they could not step outside the boundaries of this authority, still being subordinated to men). However, women took active part establishing Christianity in the new world, organized numerous religious groups, such as the Women's Christian Temperance Union, Roman Catholic orders of nuns, Hadassah, etc. (Braude 1999). Protestantism gave birth to the movement of feminism. The revival started in North America in the 18th century, the movement known as the Great Awakening. Soon it took the form of the fight for the women’s right. In the 1890s they produced the Women’s Bible, commenting on the passages from the Bible dealing with women and offering contemporary interpretation. A new splash of feminism began since 1970s, causing growth of female studying for theological degrees and their employment as teachers and professors. “This renaissance of women's learning brings with it challenges that may well ineluctably alter the nature and course of Christianity”, - believes Morny Joy (2002). Judaism Halakhah (Jewish Law) makes women and men separate but equal, simply because they’ve got different functions: women should be mothers and wives, while men’s task is to be breadwinners and guardians of home, women’s obligations being in no way less important than men’s are. The equity starts at the highest level: in Judaism God has never been viewed as exclusively masculine, but as one having both masculine and feminine qualities. And both men and women were created in the image of God. The difference between the sexes is that women have strongly developed intuition, “binah”, while men represent the power of logic, - just like the two parts of human brain. Women have always been respected in Judaism: numerous female characters, presented in the Bible, are worshiped in this religion. Rabbis have been always known to consult their wives, referred to as rebbetzins, in questions of Jewish Law and the role of women. On the other hand women, have been discouraged from getting higher education or positions in synagogues, but it has been done for the sake of female primary duties as wives and mothers. The rights of Jewish women have always been much wider than in the rest of the Western civilizations. They are secured in marriage, having the right to decide on sex (unwanted sex is treated as a rape), they possess properties and can manage them freely, they have the voice at home and in the community (Rich 2002). Shalom bayit (peace in home) is one of the greatest values of Jewish people, protecting women from abuse. In case, men misuse the concept, placing on women solely the responsibility for keeping peace at home, Jewish women are protected by pikuach nefesh (taking action to save a life), which is the sacred obligation of any Jew (Fortune and Enger 2005). The misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the halakhah was caused by several reasons. First, Talmud, which has been written by men, who often were not able to overcome personal problems with women, and blamed them of being lazy, prone to gossip, jealous and the like. Secondly, exemption of women from all positive commandments, which was done, because women’s duties as wives and mothers were viewed as ones that could not be postponed in order to fulfill a commandment. “After all, - remarks Tracey Rich, – a woman cannot be expected to just drop a crying baby when the time comes to perform a commandment” (Rich 2002). Women and men were initially divided in synagogues to be wholly preoccupied by the prayers (and not peering at pretty girls), which differed Jews from pagans, who used to have real orgies in their temples and churches. However, in the course of time it was misused, and in some synagogues the place for women was separated so that women could not hear the service. Yet it was not a common practice (Rich 2002). With the rise of feminism, Jewish women stated their rights. Armed with citations from the Breslau conference of Reform Judaism of 1846, they demanded entire equity with men, though it was not until 1972 that Sally Priesand became the first female Reform rabbi. Today women are represented in all branches of Judaism (Joy 2002). Islam Islamic feminists of our days state that at the times of the prophet Muhammad women were equal to men, having the same rights. They actively participated in the community life, feasts and were present at Muhammad’s discourses. Muhammad’s first wife Khadija, a wealthy widow and businesswoman 15 years his senior, is known to propose to him. Another wife of his, Aisha, participated in battles and contributed about two thousand hadiths to Quran. Moreover, Leila Ahmed (In Joy 2002) states that Quran was written for both men and women which is evident from Sura 33:35: For Muslim men and women,– for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah's praise, – for them Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward. However, the situation has obviously changed and Islamic women are known as ones having been dominated by men for many centuries. Morny Joy (2005) gives a number of explanations. The gradual formulation of theological, moral and legal thought, the introduction of Shari'a (the regulative code of life) and the establishment of madrasses (schools of learning) took place without female participation. Further, the situation must have been influenced by cultures of Iraq, Syria and Persia, where women of upper-classes were veiled. Anyway, it turned out convenient for Islamic men to keep women under control. And they quickly found arguments supporting such an order in Quran. The most abusive verse is ayah 34 of Surah 4 stating: "Men are the protectors and maintainers of women because Allah gave more to the one than the other, and because they support them from their means.   So devout women are extremely careful and attentive in guarding what cannot be seen in that which Allah is extremely careful and attentive in guarding.   Concerning women whose rebellious disloyalty (nusbooz) you fear, admonish them, then refuse to share their beds, then hit them; but if they become obedient, do not seek means of annoyance against them.   For Allah is Most High, Great" However, feminist scholars (Fatima Mernissi, Leila Ahmed, Riffat Hassan, Sharifa Alkhateeb) claim that this verse was simply misinterpreted. It was initially meant that a man should protect his wife, while they both are equal in front of Allah and should obey only him. Today educated women return to the Quran in attempt to restore the initial text and make clear problematic questions concerning interpretation (Joy 2002, Fortune and Enger 2005). Hinduism Hindus view the world as the combination of female and male qualities. From the Vedas (the earliest Hindu scriptures dating from 1,500 BCE) we learn that women were engaged in sacrificial priestly cult of that time. Women of upper classes were permitted to participate in rituals. Seers or rishis composed hymns that can be found in the Vedas. Women were educated and were teachers. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, (First Adhyaya, Brahmana 8) we can read about debate between the sage Yajnavalkhya and Gargi concerning the nature of absolute, when the sage had to recognize the highest spiritual knowledge of Gargi. In the course of time, however, women were excluded from participation in rituals and deprived of their right for educating, being assigned to perform only domestic rituals. The code of stridharma (literally "duty of the wife") was designed to keep women under strict control. In the 6-7th centuries there arose a mystic movement of bhakti, which became a protest against Brahmanical order. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, who lived in South India in the 6th century, is known as one of the first representatives of this movement. Women, joining the movement, came from different social strata and served various personal gods. Though they are still worshipped all over the country, it is not recommended to follow their lifestyle as a model, while the concept of pativrati, the ideal wife, remains strong. During the latest decades, there have been obvious rise in the number of female gurus and spiritual advisers, who are popular both in India and abroad. Following the bhakti model in general, some of them are devotees of Great Goddess and recognized as realizations of Shakti. Morny Joy considers these women to be “representatives of a dynamic element within the manifold of the Hindu tradition, that is transforming the contemporary development and understanding of Hinduism” (Joy 2005). Buddhism Buddhism appeared as a protest movement against Brachmanical Hinduism, and is also claimed initially to treat men and women equally. Buddha is said to establish orders for monks and nuns and to preach that women had the same chances to achieve freedom from suffering and rebirth as men did. However, in the days of great universities discriminatory rules, pronounced by the royal patrons, negatively affected the nuns’ orders. Those rules provided men with greater opportunities and superior status, both within religious and social institutions. Left without donations, nuns’ orders disappeared from India in the third century, but the lineage of ordination for nuns’ moved to China, where it is still flourishing today. The new upsurge of interest towards Theravada Buddhism, which is considered to be the closest to the original Buddha’s teaching, as well as to Tibetan and Zen Buddhism, has taken place in the countries of North American and Western Europe. The Therevada lineage was also transmitted to China and then to Taiwan. In February 1998 in Bodhgaya, India, an International Full Ordination Ceremony was held, in which 132 nuns were fully ordained. This event, sponsored by Fo Kuang Shan, Taiwan's largest monastery, was perceived by the female Buddhists as extraordinary. International Association of Buddhist women Sakyadita (Daughters of the Buddha), has worldwide membership and holds meetings every two years, where nuns and adherent women represent all the schools of Buddhism. The contemporary Buddhist women are also concerned about reestablishing the forgotten equivalence and changing the hierarchical structure of the religion (Joy 2002). Conclusion: As we can see the major world religions began with the statement of equality of the sexes. Moreover, the role of women was very significant to the success of the religions. However, as time passed, the conditioned changed: development of philosophical, theological and legal thought, male pursuit of fame and expansion of boundaries brought new rules. This happened through the establishment of new schools that intentionally misinterpreted the sacred texts of the religions. For many centuries women were tied to their homes and families and could participate in religious movements only within the boundaries permitted by men. Notwithstanding all the limitations, women were widely engaged in religious activity and continued protesting against male dominance. Feminism became the movement that broke through numerous centuries-old restrictions. References: Armstrong, Karen (1986). The Gospel According to Woman: Christianity's creation of the sex war in the west. Elm Tree Books.  Braude, Anne (1999). Women and American Religion. Ed. by Jon Butler & Harry S. Stout. Oxford University Press. Fortune, Marie, Rev. Dr. and Enger, Rabbi Cindy G. (March 2005). Violence Against Women and the Role of Religion. VAWnet. The project of the Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence and the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence. Retrieved July 12, 2007 from www.vawnet.org/DomesticViolence/Research/VAWnetDocs/AR_VAWReligion.php - 51k Gaylor, Anna Laurie (1993). Why Women Need Freedom From Religion. Nontract No. 10. Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc. Retrieved July 11, 2007 from http://www.ffrf.org/nontracts/women.html Joy, Morny (2002). The Role (or Non-Role) of Women in Religion. Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences > Advocacy. Retrieved July 11, 2007 from www.fedcan.ca/english/fromold/breakfast-joy0402.cfm Rich, Tracey (2002). Judaism 101: The Role of Women. Retrieved July 9, 2007 from www.jewfaq.org/women.htm - 29k Stark, Rodney (1995). Reconstructing the Rise of Christianity: The Role of Women. Sociology of Religion, Vol.56, pp.229-244 Read More