Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism - Essay Example

DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE MAIN TEXTS OF THESE THREE THOUGHT SYSTEMS BASED ON PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND KNOWING China has been a multi-religion and multi-thought country since the ancient times. The most common thought systems include Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism. To understand the economic, social and political China, it is important to understand the three most important thoughts stated above. This offers a chance to explore the ideas of Lao Tzu, Confucius and the Buddha and their most important teachings. The three philosophical schools were never clear about their heritages and boundaries, but are diverse and sprang from a unified tradition of ancient times. They are common in terms of theoretical deliberation and practical needs for communication, thereby paving a way for philosophical syncretism. This paper explores the greatest minds in traditional China through a close study of their most seminal teachings and texts specifically paying attention to Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism (Chan). The paper will discuss the main understanding of each thought based on texts and personal understanding. Confucianism Confucianism was introduced in China by one of the most important thinkers called Confucius. Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E when China was experiencing a difficult political turmoil1. In his twenties, he started tutoring in different disciplines but wished to hold public office at a certain point in his lifetime. Confucius began a thirteen-year journey at the age of fifty travelling from one province to another offering the rulers of those provinces his services. However, he never got offers other than the one that he was offered in his home province of Shantung, but was too old to take it. Therefore, he decided to spend his remaining years teaching and editing the great Chinese classics. He died at 73 years of age. Although he never realized his political aspirations, he is considered as one the world’s greatest teachers and thinkers because of the ideas he developed and taught during his lifetime. Confucianism is a Chinese philosophical and ethical system that began with Confucius, who explored deeply on the basic principles that were to become the most important teachings of Confucianism. Confucianism is a complex system of social, political, moral, quasi-religious and philosophical thought that influenced the history and culture of East Asia, particularly China and still does today. Confucianism holds the belief that human beings are trainable, perfectible and improvable though communal and personal effort especially through self-creation and cultivation. The main idea that Confucianism brings forth is that people should cultivate virtue and develop moral perfection. The most difficult proposition of Confucianism is that people should give up their own lives, if necessary, to uphold the cardinal moral values of ren and yi2. In The Analects, also known as the Analects of Confucius, a collection of thoughts and sayings that are linked to Confucius are brought forward. In developing his thought system, Confucius wanted to restore the political and social harmony at a time when the Zhou political structure had been disintegrating for over 200 years creating social and political disharmony in China3. Confucius idea of restoring social and political harmony was to revive the moral character of the ruling class and the literate elite by cultivating three major virtues that were the basis of morality to him. The three key virtues include humanity/humanness (ren), filial respect (xiao) and ritual propriety (li). Confucius considered humanity/humanness as essential goodness and love for other people. This virtue was the key aspect that distinguished people from other animals. Here, he shows that to be human one must be humane and having a humane quality shows that one is human. Confucius considered ritual property (li) to be the outward expression of behavior that was necessary to be considered humanity. In The Analects, Ceng Zi emphasizes on this virtue by stating, “Each day I examine myself in three ways: in doing things for others, have I been disloyal? In my interactions with friends, have I been untrustworthy? Have not practiced what I have preached?”4.This virtue was to be consistent with the cultural-specific norms put in place in that particular society. Confucianism considers filial respect (xiao) as a naturally occurring behavior that is an important aspect and determinant of other virtues because it emphasizes the respect for elders. In the Analects, You Zi said, “There are few who have developed themselves filially and fraternally who enjoy offending their superiors. Those who do not enjoy offending superiors are never troublemakers. The noble man concerns himself with the fundamentals. Once the fundamentals are established, the proper way appears. Are not filial piety and obedience to elders fundamental to the actualization of fundamental human goodness?”5. In this phrase, it is clear that filial respect is a fundamental virtue in Confucius’ teachings and requires people to obey their elders who are considered their superiors. The people who followed Confucius teachings were referred to as ru (scholars) because they were experts in the arts and rituals that were considered necessary for good governance and a cultured way of life. The followers were important to Confucianism because they contributed towards spreading the teachings even after Confucius had died. To have followers who could spread the teachings, for instance in texts called Lunyu or Analects showed that Confucius was a great teacher because he ensured that his teachings would live for years after his death. Confucianism has also been considered as a religious tradition. However, it is important to ask one important question. What is religious about Confucianism? To answer this question, it is crucial to define what religion is, and for the purposes of discussion, Frederick Streng’s definition is used. It states that religion is “a means to ultimate transformation”6. This definition shows that there is a goal of transformation. The goal depends on inherent law, and there is a means of attaining this goal. Confucianism fits within this definition because it acknowledges that people are not aware of their moral potential and because of this fact they fail to cultivate it. Therefore, Confucianism emphasizes that the goal should be to actualize our moral potential and to become humane. Here, self-cultivation plays an essential role as the means of attaining humanity. Self-cultivation entails reflection where people look at their inclinations, judge the good from the bad, and learn from the good examples of their elders and teachers. The factor of ultimate factor considered as heaven in religion is captured in Confucianism through tian (heaven). Here, tian is the ultimate source of moral value and innate goodness that characterize humanity. Confucianism also has governance ideology. Confucianism went into decline after the plummet of the Han dynasty. At this point in time, both Daoism and Buddhism were under development and were gaining popularity. However, Confucianism was revived during the Song dynasty (950-1279). During this time, scholars such as Zhu Xi (1130-1200) synthesized the teachings of Confucius into a coherent system of philosophy and religious practice that emphasized on self-cultivation7. This was an important aspect of helping people to become sages just like Confucianism emphasizes on this process. In political though, Confucius emphasizes that a good leader must do something at an appropriate time and with valuable reasons. Maturity is also an important virtue in helping people to make appropriate decisions. For instance, in Analects, the master states, “At fifteen I set my heart on learning, at thirty, I was established, at forty I had no perplexities, at fifty I understood the decrees of Heaven, at sixty my ear was in accord, and at seventy I followed what my heart desired but did not transgress what was right”8. This shows that age is as important as knowledge because as one matures in age, he or she also matures in thought and can make appropriate decisions with respect to different issues. Daoism Along with Confucianism and Buddhism, Daoism also called Taoism is one of the three great philosophical traditions in China. Daoism can be traced to religious and philosophical movements, texts and thinkers such as Laozi and Zhuangzi. Laozi was a legendary Daoist philosopher. Laozi is also referred to as Lao Tan in early Chinese texts. Zhuangzi gives an account of Confucius impression of Laozi by stating, “Master, youve seen Lao Tan—what estimation would you make of him? Confucius said, At last I may say that I have seen a dragon—a dragon that coils to show his body at its best…My mouth feel open and I couldnt close it; my tongue flew up and I couldnt even stammer. How could I possibly make any estimation of Lao Tan?”9. In Zhuangzi, Lao Tan is considered as the critic of Confucius. Zhuangzi also known as Master Zhuang was one of the earliest thinkers in China to contribute to the Daojia philosophy. He came after Laozi and was considered as a contemporary of Confucian philosopher Mencius. Zhuangzi emphasized on a holistic philosophy of life and also encouraged people to cultivate their natural ancestral skills to live a simple flourishing life. Daoism is an indigenous religious system in China, and its followers consider the ultimate goal to be the Dao (Way) which refers to the source of generative vitality in a world characterized by constant transformation. Daoism is considered Chinese because it originates from China and also understood significant through the use of the Chinese language. It involves the orientation with the sacred. The Dao refers to the ultimate concern of Taoists that has four characteristics of (1) the source, (2) an all-pervading sacred presence, impersonal and spontaneous process, (3) unnamable mystery and (4) a universe as a cosmological process. The Dao is an impersonal aspect. To be able to be sacred, one must go through an impersonal and spontaneous process that guides him or her towards the ultimate goal10. It is important to note that Daoism does not have a founder or principle scripture like a Bible. However, Laozi and Zhuangzi were among the most influential in forming this religious thought. Laozi came up with the Daodejing that is the most influential and central test in Daoism11. The most important textual compilation in the Daoist tradition is the Daozang comprising of about 1500 texts, which come from every major movement and period of Daoist history12. The Guanzi (350-250 BCE) is one of the texts that has been considered an as important text to Daoism in addition to the Daodejing and Zhuangzi. It is older than the two texts and has seventy-six chapters. Three of the most important chapters in this book include Neiye, Huainanzi and Xiang’er. Neiye addresses issues of self-cultivation practices and teachings id Daoism. The Huainanzi is a Han dynasty work and the Xiang’er is a commentary on the Daodejing13. Daoism is both a philosophical and religious system. Daoist ideas came from teachers who perceived life from a holistic view. The daoishi (daoist teachers and masters) did not differentiate the practices that sought to influence the forces of reality. They offered insights into how people might practice philosophical aphorisms. They also practiced medication, engaged in physical exercises, studied nature, practiced rituals and offered life guidance advices. For example, in Zhuangzi, section 3, “the secret of caring for life”, guidance on how people should live is given. It is stated, “our life is short, against the infinity of knowledge. no action does not mean don’t do anything, you can still pursue knowledge, to be aware the given you cannot change”14. This shows that Daoism is a philosophical, as well as religious movement, because it offers sacred as well as general life teachings to its followers. It does not take a single stand to how people should live or make decisions but offers certain principles that people can observe in their daily activities. The Daojing text in Daoism teaches its followers that human beings cannot understand the way (Dao) or direction because it is abstract. It is beyond what people can conceive or physically feel. It is only when a person becomes one with Dao, that it can be said it has been obtained. This is a difficult aspect to understand this concept. Nevertheless, Daoism emphasizes that it does not advocate for people to do nothing because they do not know the way. It advices its followers to do what they can and this is captured in Zhuangzi that states, “talking about the function of knowledge. you do much as you can. what your nature ability allows you but don’t go beyond that”15. Daoism also shows that there are limits to people’s actions and that people should not go beyond those limits. Knowledge is key in determining the limits of people’s actions16. Buddhism Buddhism is one of the major world religions, which originated from India around the 6th century B.C.E. The traditions of Buddhism extended through East and Central Asia through China, Japan and Korea. In the Buddhist tradition, Shakyamuni was the founder of the Buddhist thought. Shakyamuni, also referred to as Siddhartha Gautama was born around 490 B.C.E in a royal family. It is stated that he did not lead a typical life starting from his birth where a legend states that his mother gave birth to him while standing in a grove of trees. Because of his father’s affluence, Shakyamuni was provided with everything he needed for his studies. However, he was not permitted to leave the palace and left at the age of 29 to explore the world17. His first for exploration journeys significantly affected his thought helping him start his religious quest. This made him search for enlightenment, which gave birth to Buddhism. It is revealed that his moment of enlightenment came when he was seated in medication under a tree, and made him receive power to see his past life, death and all kinds of rebirth. This made him a Buddha, a term that means, “awakened one” in Buddhism18. Buddhism was not an indigenous religion and thought system of China like Confucianism and Daoism. According to Chinese historians, Buddhism was first recognized in the country at about 67 A.D. It is stated that before 67 A.D., the Chinese emperor, Ming Ti had a dream and where he saw a large golden image that had a halo hovering above his head. When he reported this to his advisers, they told him that the image was Buddha’s (Gautama), and he was inviting his adhesion. The emperor sent an embassy to study Buddhism. When they came back, they brought two Indian monks and many Buddhist classics and those who came after the monks were referred to as the White Horse Monastery. The decline of Confucianism and Taoism/ Daoism contributed to the growth of Buddhism. Purists from North China advocated for a return to a simple life. Thus, they devoted their religious fervor and literary ability to the spread of Buddhism leading to its success19. Buddhism that was applied in China was different from that taught by Gautama. Buddhism in China emphasized on progressive Mahayana (great vessel of salvation) as opposed to conservative Hinayana (little vehicle of salvation). The Mahayana school of Buddhism integrates the general ideas of Hinayana Buddhism on life and salvation but changes the idea of the spirit and the objectives of the religion. It opens Buddhahood to all people rather than the few who can retire from the world and assign themselves to good deeds. The person considered as the saint in Mahayana Buddhism is the one considered as the candidate for Buddhahood. Popularly referred to as Bodhisattva. Unlike Hinayana, Mahayana Buddhism is progressive. It encourages people to be missionaries, something that was essential to the spread of Buddhism in China. It recognizes Gautama as a god and salvation as entrance into a heavenly world of pure souls. On the other hand, Hinayana does not have a god or an entity to which worship is directed. Buddhism contributed to changes in China through its emphasis on the individual. Ancient china never considered the individual as an important aspect in society. The family and clan were the most important factors in society. Confucianism and Taoism considered the aspect of individuality, but this was a focus on superior beings considered as immortals or princely men. Buddhism gave individuality a distinct position in the great wheel of dharma showing the importance it holds in emphasizing that a person can reach the highest goal of salvation. This brought about a new element into the family and social life of the Chinese people20. Unlike Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism tried to bring unity of religion in China by trying to fuse the three together. At one point in Buddhism history in China, Buddhists claimed that Bodhisattva Ju Tung was incarnate of Confucius and went ahead to establish a Buddhist Temple dedicated to Confucius in Shantung province. Buddhism also claimed that Bodhisattva Kas’yapa was incarnate of Lao Tzu, one of the important thinkers in Taoism. Buddhism has several basic tenets. The first tenet is Dharma, reincarnation and Karma. Here, it is believed that human beings can free themselves from suffering through meditation and undertaking the Buddha lifestyle. Buddhists believe that there is life after death in a new form with could be a deity, animal or a hungry ghost. Good karma refers to positive deeds that help one to be reborn in a higher form after death. Bad karma, on the other hand, may lead to a rebirth in a lower form. Buddhism also emphasizes on four noble truths that characterize Buddhist thought. These include life is suffering, it is caused by craving, it can have an end and the cycle of suffering can be repeated. Another tenet of Buddhism is enlightenment (Nirvana). This is the elimination of greed, ignorance and hatred within an individual. The fulfillment of nirvana marks the end of the cycle of death and rebirth. another tenet of Buddhism is Bodhisattvas, which is believed to be an important goal for individuals to achieve other than nirvana. A bodhisattva is a person who has achieved enlightenment but does not want to get into nirvana until all persons are relieved of suffering. They choose to be reborn so that they can help people to end their suffering21. In conclusion, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are three key religious and philosophical thought systems that were dominant in ancient China and some of the concepts from the three key religious and though systems are still applicable in the country. There have been interactions between the three. For example, Buddhism considered one of its bodhisattvas as a Confucius incarnate and built a temple dedicated to Confucius in Shantung. Taoists built monasteries resembling Buddhist monasteries. Buddhist and Taoism had common festivals. Some Confucius followers adopted the Taoist belief in permanence. Taoists also adopted Buddhist and Confucian principles in what was referred to as Xuan Xie. Therefore, the three religious and though systems have contributed to Chinese social and political issues over time. Bibliography Bodde, Derk trans., Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. 2, The Period of Classical Learning. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953. Cleary, Thomas. The Sutra of HUi-Neng with Hui-Nengs commentary on the Diamond Sutra. New York: Random House, 1998. Gardner, Daniel K. Chu Hsi: Learning to Be a Sage. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Graham, A.C. Chuang-Tzu: The Inner Chapters. Boston: Unwin Paperbacks, 1989. Ivanhoe, Philip J. "Thinking and Learning in Early Confucianism," Journal of Chinese Philosophy 17:4 (December 1990), pp. 473-493. ----- "Zhuangzi on Skepticism, Skill, and the Ineffable Dao," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 61:4 (Winter 1993), pp. 101-116. Ivanhoe, Philip J. and Bryan W. Van Norden, eds., Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Seven Bridges Press, 2000. Lau, D.C. Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching. 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