Chinese Philosophy: Confucianism and Taoism - Essay Example

Chinese Philosophy In a general sense, Buddhism could be regarded as the first full- fledged religion as we know it. The organization and the interim hierarchy within the basic system of the 'sangha' or Buddhist church laid the foundation stone of organization structure of other future prominent religion- Christianity and Islam. During the advent of Buddhism in China the other prominent religion of the time was Confucianism and Taoism. But these were not the usual religion in form as we know today but they were more of philosophic teachings in nature. Today, Buddhism is one of the major religions in China. It became well established throughout the vast nation during the 300's A.D. It is surprising, then, to learn that at one time, most of the Chinese people viewed the religion with skepticism, considering it to be little more than a strange foreign cult. Many of the early Chinese converts to the Buddhist religion risked ostracism and persecution simply for practicing their beliefs. Buddhism reached China from India around 100 A.D. For many years, almost all Chinese subscribed to either of two native religions. One was Confucianism, which was based on the ideas of Confucius, the revered philosopher. The tenets of this belief system included obedience to authority, the promotion of education, societal order, and a deep respect for one's ancestors and for the past. Confucius was born about 550 B.C. and the religion based on his teachings emerged shortly after his death in the 470's B.C. The other traditional Chinese religion was Taoism. The basic teachings of this belief system included a reverence for nature and routine celebration of the faith's many protective gods. Taoism began during the 300's B.C. and is based on a book entitled the Tao Te Ching (The Classic of the Way and the Virtue). Taoism was also heavily influenced by elements of Chinese folk religion. When Buddhists first began to appear in China, most Chinese deeply mistrusted them. Their mistrust was easy to understand. According to Sources of Chinese Tradition, written by Theodore Debary, Buddhism was a radically different religion from both Confucianism and Taoism. Buddhism itself was founded about 500 B.C. in India by the teacher named Buddha. Buddha was born about 563 B.C. in southern Nepal. His actual name was Siddhartha Gautama. He was a member of a powerful royal family. Despite Gautama's wealth and high social standing, he was a deeply unhappy young man. At age 29, the future Buddha sank into a debilitating depression. He was convinced that life was full of misfortune and heartache. His feelings of melancholy caused him to leave his own family to seek spiritual enlightenment as an itinerant monk. After six years of nonstop traveling, Gautama finally experienced enlightenment. He was convinced that he had discovered why life was so full of woe. In addition, he was convinced that he had discovered how human beings could escape their feelings of misery. He soon had many followers. These followers called him Buddha, which means the Enlightened One. According to Theodore Debary in his work, Sources of Chinese Tradition, much of the Chinese people's initial misgivings about Buddhism stemmed from simple xenophobia (p. 277). China possessed one of the world's earliest great civilizations; Chinese writing history goes back thousands of years ago. The Chinese people were greatly accomplished, and not surprisingly, this great culture tended to view other peoples as being inferior. The Chinese seemed to view India with contempt, and many Chinese felt that a religion that came from India would have a negative, corrupting influence on the population (p. 277). Much mistrust was also triggered by simple and seemingly shallow cultural differences between the Indians and the Chinese. For example, many Chinese were originally dismayed upon learning that Buddhist clerics took vows of celibacy (Debary, p. 276). "What about ancestor worship" asked incredulous Chinese. If there were no descendents, they reasoned that there would be no sacrifices. Also, the Chinese considered the desire to produce offspring to be normal and healthful. The Chinese, in fact, viewed childlessness as being calamitous (Debary, p. 276). Other differing cultural views frustrated relations between the Indians and the Chinese people. Buddhist monks were required to shave their heads. However, the Chinese had unique beliefs about hair. They believed that shaving one's head disrespected the body (Debary, p. 276). Also, the Chinese- initially, at least- were greatly offended that Buddhist monks did not bow down before kings or other top government officials (Debary, p. 280). Many crucial ideological differences between the Buddhists and the followers of traditional Chinese faiths existed, however. In many ways, Buddhism is a religion for skeptics, realists, materialists, cynics, or non-religious persons. Its fundamental truths are not metaphysical or theological, as Theodore Debary notes in Sources of Chinese Tradition. Rather, these truths are psychological. Moreover, these main truths are, in many ways, profoundly pessimistic (p. 266). The Four Truths, which are the common property of all schools of Buddhist thought, are part of the true Doctrine, which reflects the fundamental moral law of the universe (p. 266 and 267). According to the faith, all things are composite, and as a corollary of this, all things are transient, for the composition of all aggregates is liable to change with time. Being essentially transient, these things have no permanent self or soul, and no individuality. All things are destined to be liable to sorrow (p. 267). These characterizations of the nature of the world and all that is in it are common themes in Buddhist literature. Followers must properly understand these various concepts; otherwise, for them, there will be no chance of salvation. Human beings who desire permanence will be inevitably disappointed because permanence cannot be obtained. The basic themes of Buddhism include the inescapable nature of pain and misery, as well as the conviction that most things around human beings are largely illusionary. Overall, Buddhism seems to be a gloomy belief system. No wonder then, that the early Chinese viewed the religion as being rather suspect. Confucianism and Taoism both insist that permanence and stability are possible. Buddhism tends to view the process of life to be one full of ongoing chaos. Life essentially has no order. The transience of life is also conveyed through the concept of the Chain of Causation or Dependent Origination. This is the process by which life continues and one thing leads to another (267). This concept is heavily influenced by the Hindu beliefs regarding reincarnation. However, to Buddhists, the root cause of the process of birth, death, and rebirth is ignorance- the basic illusion that individualism and permanence exist (p. 268). Buddhism maintains that these two things do not exist. When this essential truth is overlooked, various psychic phenomena (such as desire) manifest themselves. These manifestations are followed by the attempt to appropriate things to itself. This is typified particularly by sexual desire or intercourse. These illusionary feelings merely bring on the next links in this chain. They conclude with age and death, which are destined to be repeated indefinitely. Rebirth occurs according to karma (p. 268). All things, including every person, are in a state of constant, unending instability (p. 268). Each act, word, or thought leaves its traces on the collection of the five constituents which comprise the phenomenal individual, and their characters alter correspondingly. These five constituents are form and matter (rupa), sensations (vedana), perceptions (samjna), psychic dispositions or constructions (samskara), and consciousness or conscious thought (vijnana). This process, of course, goes on throughout life (p. 268). One of the main (and most controversial) beliefs in traditional Buddhism is in regards to the familiar concept of the soul. Traditional Buddhism declares that there is no permanent soul, a belief that particularly shocked the early Chinese. Buddhists do, however, believe in the concept of transmigration. Here, again, Hinduism reveals its influence upon Buddhism. Another major (and controversial) Buddhist tenet is Nirvana. Nirvana is the only thing that stops the despairing, ongoing process of rebirth (p. 268). Nirvana can be achieved by assuming the correct views about the nature of existence, by adhering to a tightly regulated system of moral conduct, and by concentration and meditation (p. 268). Nirvana literally means, "blowing out," as of a lamp (p. 268). In Nirvana, ego and individual personality cease to be. There is, then, nothing to be reborn. Nirvana for the individual means annihilation, although for Buddhists, this is not an unpleasant thing. For them, Nirvana is a supremely blissful transcendent state (p. 268). For the Chinese, Buddhism- at least in its traditional state- contradicted many of their core beliefs. The Chinese believed in law and order. Buddhists maintained that law and order were largely illusionary. The Chinese valued service to the community, while Buddhism was profoundly mystical and escapist. The Chinese cherished the soul, while Buddhists speculated that the soul did not exist. It is difficult to believe, then, that the Chinese would embrace Buddhism, considering how seemingly incompatible the two worldviews seem to be with one another. Buddhism would be embraced by the Chinese only after they transformed the belief system somewhat. The work Mou Tzu- The Disposition of Error (the author is unknown) helped make Buddhism more palatable to the Chinese. In this apologia for Buddhism, the unknown writer asserts that good Chinese citizens can also be good Buddhists (p. 275). Significantly, the author attempts to present Buddhism as similar to Confucianism and Taoism. Mao Tzu asserts that all three religions shared some common beliefs. These included altruism and strict moral standards. Later on, Buddhism would be greatly influenced by these native Chinese religions. Buddhists in China would later conclude that human beings have souls and that the spirit inside each individual can achieve immortality (p. 277). Buddhists in China would later incorporate many traditional Chinese gods into the religion. Hundreds of years before the arrival of Buddhism, a distinctly different belief system was common in China. From about 1122 B.C. to 256 B.C., the Zhou dynasty ruled the nation. This was China's longest-ruling dynasty. The Zhou dynasty began when the Zhou tribes of western China conquered the ruling Shang dynasty. Zhou rulers divided the kingdom into many states. A local chief headed each state but enforced the central government's laws and regulations. A weak Zhou leader was defeated by his enemies in 771 B.C. The dynasty then moved its capital east from Hao to Luoyang. This move was the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. During this period, major cities developed, a merchant class emerged, and the use of money replaced bartering. Confucius and Laozi developed their ideas during the Eastern Zhou period. The Zhou dynasty ended in 256 B.C. after a long, gradual decline of the central government. This period may have been marked by the development of cultural refinement, as well as the development of Confucian and Taoist ideas, but through much of this time period, religious thought was immature, particularly during its early years. During the first few decades of the Zhou dynasty, magical thinking dominated the minds of the citizens. These superstitious ideas included fortune telling and astrology. The beliefs were rather shallow intellectually. They contained none of the sublime profundity that would mark Buddhism, nor do they possess any of the stirring moral vision of Confucianism or Taoism. Patricia Buckley Ebrey, in her book, Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, describes the beliefs and rituals of the early decades of the Zhou dynasty. During this period, the interpretation of hexagrams gained enormous popularity as a form of divination. To receive advice, the person would randomly draw six milfoil stalks, long or short, to form a hexagram of six lines, which were either broken or unbroken (p. 8). The diviner would then interpret the hexagram according to traditionally-observed meanings associated with each of the lines (p. 8). These various meanings and interpretation eventually became the Book of Changes. This book was essentially a fortuneteller's handbook. Many of the book's changes are brief. Many others are ambiguous and open to more than one form of interpretation (p. 8). Nevertheless, the Book of Changes came to be revered as one of the Five Classics. Over the centuries, many scholars have tried to reconstruct the philosophical meanings contained in the work (p. 8). The Book of Changes is rich in elaborate symbolism. The First Hexagram, which is essentially all whole lines, is the "most creative or assertive hexagram" (p. 8). It is used to represent Heaven. The Second Hexagram symbolizes earth. This "most receptive and yielding hexagram" consists of all broken lines (p. 9). Dualistic principles are also apparent in regards to the theories of Yin (female, receptive, and dark), and Yang (male, assertive, and bright). The theories of Yin and Yang emerged during the later Zhou Period and still attract scholarly interest today (p. 8). Even today, Confucius is China's most influential philosopher and scholar. From the 100's B.C. to the A.D. 1900's. his ideas served as the strongest influence on Chinese society. His ideas, which came to be called Confucianism, emphasize the necessity to build moral character and responsibility. Chinese governments made his teachings the official state philosophy. Although many people consider Confucianism a religion, it possesses no clergy and does not teach the worship of a God or gods or the existence of a life after death. It is more of a guide to morality and proper government procedure. Confucius believed that society could be saved through individual sincerity in personal and public life. Confucius idealized the concept of the prototypical Chinese gentleman. The gentleman possessed good moral character, was reverent in worship, and respected his father and government leaders. The gentleman was also intellectually independent. Definite rules of conduct guided the gentleman's thoughts and actions. Confucius also believed that the gentleman should study diligently and engage regularly in self-examination. Confucius believed that when gentlemen were rulers, their moral example would inspire those beneath them to lead virtuous lives. The early Confucianists concerned themselves greatly with societal needs. Later on, Taoism began to shift the emphasis to other areas of human experience, such as the ability of the individual to live in harmony with nature. By the 700's, candidates for government jobs had to take civil service examinations that were based largely on Confucian ideas. The examinations carried out Confucius's convictions that a state has to be built on the merit of its rulers' advisers. Ebrey notes in her book, Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, that the long-lasting Tang dynasty was profoundly influenced by Confucian ideas (p. 112-119). The Tang dynasty consisted of a series of rulers who governed China from A.D. 618 to 907. Many historians consider the Tang period to be the "golden age" of Chinese civilization. The Tang rulers united China and created a strong central government using Confucian principles. They carefully hand-picked their chief officials. They also formed a council of ministers to act as advisors. In addition, the Tang emperors sent inspectors into the provinces of China to monitor the activities of local governors. As per Peter N Gregory in his Tsung-Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism this religion developed into a new era where the doctrines were blended into Chinese society with much change during the Sui- T'ang rule. It was a significant drift from the original teachings and much different from the earlier six dynasties. The assimilation of Buddhism into Chinese tradition was later known a Neo- Taoism or Hasun-hasun. (pg. 3). Taizong was a particularly powerful ruler. He reorganized the administration of the empire. He even built colleges to aid in selecting and training officials for government work. Although Buddhism had by then become China's main religion, the ruler knew that many Chinese who could help him carry out his programs followed Confucianism. This knowledge led him to appoint many Confucians to high governmental posts. Refusal to adhere to Confucian ideas were often disastrous for Chinese government. Denis C. Twitchett notes in the essay "The Sui (589-618) and Tang (618-907) Dynasties" that, in the 2nd century the Han fell into a sharp decline. Much, if not most, of this decline was precipitated by corrupt governmental procedures (p. 1). Ineffective, weak emperors succeeded one another on the throne as continual court intrigue between factions backed by the influential families of empresses, by eunuchs and by groups of great landowners raged bitterly (p. 1). These disruptions would decrease imperial authority. Over time, the Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt. Eventually, government became so ineffectual that it helped to incite the destructive Yellow Turban Rebellion. After this large-scale revolt, the dynasty was forced to maintain power through the support of military dictators (p. 1). In 220, the dynasty did collapse, and until the end of the 6th century, China was split up into regional regimes. Things were particularly dire in Northern China . Without a strong centralized government, local government came to be largely dominated by influential local clans whose members monopolized public office. Concentration of power and wealth in the hands of the great families was accompanied by the growth of serf-like dependents. In this bureaucracy, the important positions were filled by members of a comparatively minute number of aristocratic clans, who formed an insular social hierarchy. These social elites refused to marry members of non-aristocratic families. The social structure that resulted was rather similar to the rigid caste system to be found in India (p. 3). Members of the local aristocracy clans contrasted sharply with "regular" Chinese citizens of this period. This small minority enjoyed fantastic wealth, culture, and style of life. They also enjoyed bountiful legal and monetary privileges. During this period, access to political office was restricted. Persons gained political office through family connections and the social standing of his lineage (p. 3). Here, one understands how important the Confucian ideals were to the proper functioning of Chinese. By refusing to follow them, the ruling figures plunged China into chaos and disrepair. It would take the nation years to recover from its own failed policies. When Buddhism took root in China, in many ways Confucianism was re-energized. The same could not be said of Taoism, however. Arthur F. Wright, in his work, Buddhism in Chinese History, that, by this time, Taoism- at least in its most traditional form- was seen by many Chinese to be effete and increasingly irrelevant (p. 42). However, neo-Taoism- a modified version of the native belief system, quickly found converts. Neo-Taoism, brought in by Northern migrs, fit in well with the culture of the Yangtze Valley. Many devotees of the revised belief system were aristocrats who were shaken by the tumultuous recent events that plagued China. By embracing neo-Taoism, they felt as if they were re-connecting to a happier, more stable national past. Buddhism and the ideas of Taoism would continue to influence each other, however (p. 45). Much of the discussion of Buddhist ideas was carried on in Taoism's favorite mode, the dialogue of ch'ing-t'an, although many Chinese still insisted that Taoism- even in a modernized form- was still dying, stripped of its vitality (p. 45). Still, neo-Taoism did manage to increase the speculative range of Chinese thought (p. 45). The religion raised questions which could not be answered by reference to the poetical images of Chuang-tzu and the Lao-tzu (p. 45). Influential Buddhist monks such as Hui-yuan made appeals to the Taoist literary classics (p. 49). In addition, the Taoists did establish roots in parts of southern China around the time of the Yellow Turban revolts. They were so successful, that, for a long time, Buddhists struggled to gain a mass following in the area (p. 53). Despite the predictions of its detractors, Taoism would survive. However, it came to be profoundly affected by outside religious and spiritual forces. Many Taoist deities, temples, and ceremonies show the influence of the foreign religion, Buddhism. It would also come to include magic, special diets, breath control, astrology, fortunetelling, witchcraft, and communication with the spirits of the dead. However, the core beliefs of Taoism are still extant. These include the convictions that everyone should strive for happiness and immortality. Taoists still engage in ancestor worship. Reference Debary, Theodore. Sources of Chinese Tradition. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook (Second Edition). New York: The Free Press, 1993. Twitchett, Denis C. "The Sui (589-618) and T'ang (618-907) Dynasties." Essays on T'ang Society. Ed. Perry, John Curtis and Smith, Bardwell L. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976. Wright, Arthur F. Buddhism in Chinese History. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959. Gregory, Peter. Tsung-Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism. University of Hawaii Press, 2003 Read More