Latin American civilizations - Essay Example

. . . 16 March 2007 Latin American Civilizations - the Diversity of Religious Practices Latin America refers to countries living on the south of United States of America. It comprises twenty independent states, six European (France & Netherlands) dependences and two US dependences. According to the American Heritage College Dictionary (3rd edition) the word "Latin" is derived from the word "Latium" which refers to an ancient country of west-central Italy bordering on the Tyrrhenian sea dominated by Roman Empire after the 3rd century B. C. As the region is defined with its European ancestry so the people of Latin America do not necessarily feel identify with the region. They tend to identify them with their national identities rather than with a Latin American regional identity.The population of Latin America is an amalgam of ethnic groups with varying composition of European, Amerindian or African origin. The Latin America has remained the home of many indigenous peoples and civilizations, including the notable Maya, Aztecs and Inca, before the colonialism in late15th century. They followed diverse religious thoughts and practices. Following is an account of some important civilization religious thoughts and practices. Mayan Religious Practices The Maya civilization emerged in Mesoamerica - a region extending south and east central Mexico to include parts of Guatemala, Nicaragua , Honduras and Belize in early 1800 AD and flourished around 300-900 AD. Quiche was the mother tongue of all Mesoamerican and it is still spoken by a large number of Guatemalan indigenous people. The Mayan people had spectacular art and architectural skills with sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems. The Mayan religious school of thought was based on the cyclical nature of time. Popol Vuh was their sacred book and Mexico and Guatemala was their main religious Centers. Like many ancient civilizations three aspects of cosmos i. e; the underworld, the sky and the earth, were the key features of Mayan religious belief. The caves, mountains and natural wells were considered extremely important geographical features as they were seen connecting the upper and the nether worlds. The influence of Cosmo vision was obvious even in their city planning and architecture. Mayan underworld was dominated by the aged Maya gods of death and putrefaction. The sun god dominated the Mayan idea of the sky. The night sky was considered to be a window showing all supernatural doings. They believed that world had infinite space and it had flat and square shape. They also worshiped the circle, which symbolized perfection or the balancing of forces. The maize god was considered to be the central figure of Mayan religious philosophy and maize life - cycle lay at the heart of Maya people. According to Mayan belief all gods were unbounded and associated with each others. The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed with the passage of time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican religion was the dualism among the divine entities. The gods symbolized the confrontation between opposite poles: the positive, exemplified by light, the masculine, force, war, the sun, etc.; and the negative, exemplified by darkness, the feminine, repose, peace, etc. Good and bad features were not permanents traits of gods (Maya civilization, 1) . Philosophically, the Maya believed that knowing the past meant knowing the cyclical influences that create the present, and by knowing the influences of the present one can see the cyclical influences of the future. Aztec Religious Thoughts and Practices The Aztecs civilization refers to the Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people under the control of the Mexico. The Aztec Empire was founded in postclassical era in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries in central Mexico with Tenochtitlan as its capital. The basic theme of Aztec belief was Ometecuhtli - a Supreme Creator, who, according to their belief, had dual nature. The central fireplace at homes was considered to be the shrine of the oldest of the gods. It was called the Huehueteotl and they saw in him a symbol of the continuous creation of fire which was supposed be equivalent to life and the destruction of used-up things. There were hundred of gods and goddesses worshiped by Aztecs and each corresponds to a different aspect of life. There was sun god and maize god. The sun was the symbol of courage, brightness and glory. It was believed that it had his special heaven for brave warriors who had been sacrificed and for women who had died in childbirth. These warriors, dressed as eagles, lifted the sun to the top of the sky every morning; the women lowered him down each evening into the underworld. The priests had very important place among social mobility. The priestly way was a strangely savage life of deep learning and meditation and personal sacrifice (Barroqueiro, 3). Ritual ceremonies were very important to the Aztecs during the agricultural year ensuring good crops. During these ceremonies human sacrifices were given to the gods. Many of the sacrifices were war prisoners or children. They felt that human hearts and blood gave the gods strength. Large temples were built to perform these sacrifices (Althoff, 1). Inca Religious Practices Inca Civilization time span is 1438 till 1533 AD and it flourished in what is now is Peru. The Inca Empire was the most remarkable in the civilizations of America, the one which had more urged and the most deliberate. The Inca population covered area from the North equator to Central Chile. Like Aztec Inca were polytheists too. They worshipped the dead, ancestors, founding culture heroes, their king whom they regarded as divine, nature and its cycles. The worship of nature and its cycles suggest that for them time and space were sacred, and consequently the calendar was religious and each month had its own festival. Viracocha was their main god and was considered to be the creator of Inca Civilization. Inti, was the sun god and Inca considered them the children of sun god. Precious metal like silver was believed to be the tears of moon and gold believed to be the sweat of the sun god. The Inca believed that they had a very good association with the gods and they demonstrated their dedication by building fortresses on high mountain tops or sacred areas. Priests and priestesses were highly honored and often part of the royal family. They were said to be the medium between god and common men. They celebrated a combing festival in which Priestesses performed combing which marked the coming of age for a girls to become a women. The most beautiful and talented girls were selected and they were sent to Casco to become princesses or the brides of rulers. During the ceremonies traditional dances were performed, many people gathered to celebrate them. The priests were appointed as advisors and counselors to the royal family and they also counsel at others on occasion. They preached about the message of their gods and predicted about their good and bad features. Marriages were very happy occasions for Inca people. For marriage ceremonies they took the guidance to their priests. According to Inca religious belief the Inca man had to choose a woman before the age of twenty years. Inca also had the tradition of giving a dowry and bride was considered to be the part of it. During the wedding ceremony, the bride and groom would join hands, exchange sandals and a feast would be held afterward (Religion, 1). There were also many other smaller civilizations also lived in different Latin American areas. Pueblo, Fremont and Mississippian lived in north part of Latin America while Abipon, Araucanians, Huastec, Olmec, Piple, Tarascan, Toltec, Teotihuacn, Totonac, Zapotec and Norte Chico, Norte Chico, Chibcha, Chimor, Chachapoya, Moche, Tairona, Tiwanaku were the inhabitants of Mesoamerica and South America respectively. Most of them were polytheistic, with many gods, spirits, and rites. The Abipon lived in the lower Bermejo River area in the Argentine Gran Chaco. They were a crude, semi nomadic group of people that engaged in hunting, gathering, fishing, and limited agriculture. prior to the arrival of the horse in the Gran Chaco area. The social and religious organization of Abipon circled round the Shaman. According to their believes the shaman had control over diseases and death, he can predict the future, cause rain and blizzards, call the dead, shape shift into the "tiger", handle snakes and heal injured or sick individuals. The shaman had complete control private and tribal matters. Works Cited Althoff, C., Habeck, R. and Brad Hegseth. "The Aztec Culture." (n., d.). 12 March 2007 < http://www.angelfire.com/az/atid410/> Barroqueiro, S. A. "The Aztecs: A Pre-Columbian History." (1999). 10 March 2007 Delaney, T., "Abipon." (n., d.). 15 March 2007 < http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/southamerica/abipon.html "Hispanic-American Indians". Religion-cults. (n., d.). 10 March 2007 "Maya Civilization". Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 5 March 2007. 9 March 2006 "Religion". Library: thinkquest. 5 March 2007. 9 March 2006 . . . 15 March 2007 Latin American Civilizations- ways of Independence The Spaniard established their colonies on Encomienda - a central economic system and social organizational tool. In few decades evolution the Encomienda split the Latin American society into Encomenderos, Mestizos and Creoles. Indians were excluded and marginalized, though not as much as black slaves. In 17th century, African slaves were started to replace the Indian because of their cheap labor, to work in sugarcane fields, coffee plantations and in mines. In 1791, the slave population led by Toussaint L'Ouventure, Jean Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christopher revolted against the French and gained the control of the northern part of island of Hispaniola - a French colony, waging a war of attrition against the French. Napoleon Bonaparte sent an army to crash the revolt yet in January 1804, local forces defeated the French army and established the second independent state after America and renamed the area Haiti (Background Notes: Haiti). According to wikipedia the impending defeat of the French in Haiti is widely credited with contributing to Napoleon's decision to sell the Louisiana territory to the US in 1803. The American declaration of independence in 1776, three years later the French Revolution and freedom of Haiti from colonial, rule greatly influenced the Latin America intellectual elites and a concept of republicanism developed. The "no taxation without representation" principle was endorsed by key intellectual and political figures in Latin America. By the end of the eighteenth century, Spanish and Portuguese power began to wane as other European powers took their place, notably Britain and France. Resentment grew over the restrictions imposed by the Spanish government, as well as the dominance of native Spaniards, over the major institutions and the majority population, including the Spanish descended Creoles. In 1808, Napoleon II invaded Spain and King Ferdinand VII lucky to escape. At that time, there were two schools of thoughts among the Latin American colonies. There were few Ferdinand loyal supporters and want to remain the part of Spanish Empire. Their clear intension did not mean a true independence from Spain. On the other hands there were few patriots and wanted to get rid of colonial system. The invasion of Napoleon proved to be a turning point for Latin American colonies and it set the first wave of independence across the whole region. Yet as the French forces were defeated and withdrew from Spain, Ferdinand came back to power. He sent new troops to regain the control of all Spanish colonial territories. The Reconquista (re-conquest) began and successfully completed. Spain again took the control of all the independent territories with the support of Ferdinand loyalists and the first independence wave was aborted. Although the Spanish authorities successfully seized power from the patriots and suppressed the independent movement yet the true independent seekers, with the support of Haiti and United states, set a new uprising against the Span. Later the France and England also provided their financial support as both had interest in trading with the Americas and Spanish colonial rule prevented them from doing so. The two key figures of the second and final independence pushes in Latin America are Venezuelan born Simon Bolivar and Argentine Jose de San Martin. There were few similarities of the independence came about Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Venezuela. The first resemblance among the revolutionary movements was that the causes of independence were in many respects alike. Many elites of theses areas were educated in Europe, therefore the young Creoles promptly adopted and endorsed the republican wave sweeping Europe at the time. In most of Latin American colonies under the Spanish Empire, the Spanish authorities established the political structure comprising of provinces and viceroyalties. There was a little economic interdependence among the colonies and most of the trading ties were concentrated with the Europe and newly independent America. There was a little trade among the colonies. Also the geographical features like mountains and distance enhanced their isolation. The English and American contacts through smuggling spread liberal ideas and they had evolved in such a way that the provinces and viceroyalties developed a sense of national identity. The revolt of the English in North American colonies, the French Revolution, and the independence of Santo Domingo furnished examples and despite the fact that Spaniard successfully suppressed the first independent movement yet the true independent seekers set a final uprising against the Spanish Colonial Rule. The second and an important similarity among the Independent movements was that the independence of these countries likes Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Venezuela were achieved directly or indirectly through outside aid. External influences played a prominent part in bringing the revolution. England and France were the trade rivals of Spain and each had its strong interest in that region. Despite Spanish laborious efforts to keep the France out from arena, the subversive French philosophy successfully penetrated into the Spanish America. Simon Bolivar was the liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. He got his education from Europe and he was well aware of the fact that all Latin American Spanish colonies must be free from colonial rule. He spent a little time in America to study the American independence movement. In 1810, as the movement for independence started across Latin America, and as the Spanish crown fell to the French armies, Venezuela also declared independence and the patriot Francisco de Miranda was declared himself as president. As the scenario changed back in Spain, the Spanish troops returned and regained the control of the country in 1812, and Bolivar and other patriots had to flee to New Granada (the present day Colombia). From there he issued the "Independentist Manifesto de Cartagena". He attacked on the Spanish forces and on August 6, 1813, Bolivar regained the control of the country. He was named as president. In 1814, Spanish troops again retaliated and they again defeated the Bolivar. He narrowly escaped death and fled to Jamaica. Now he concentrated to find a lasting solution for whole of region. Hence he set a call for all the patriots to gather and fight for the independence of all the Latin American colonies. He got the support of Haiti and launched a new independence war in Venezuela. After capturing the costal areas of Venezuela, Bolivar decided to attack the Spanish armies in New Colombia. He took them by surprise with his small but daring army and achieved victory in the crucial Battle of Boyaca on August 7, 1819. When the royalists' armies surrendered to Bolivar, he moved on to Bogot. Independence for Northern South America was secured. He declared the Republic of Grand Colombia and immediately sought to expel the royalist armies from Venezuela and Ecuador. In the Battle of Carabobo in June of 1821, he secured control of Venezuela. He continued his mission and reached onto Lima to aid San Martin in the liberation of Peru in1823. On December 8, 1824, the Spanish Viceroy of Peru capitulated he and Independence was achieved. In 1825, General Sucre liberated Alto Peru and the entire region was left without Spanish royal presence. The new nation chose its name to honor the great liberator and adopted the name of Bolivia. Like Bolivar, San Martin was also an important figure of Latin American independent movement and played important role in liberation of Argentina. He was born in 1788 in Argentina and received his education from Spain. He fought in the Spanish army against England and Portugal. A turning point in his life came when the Spanish army was defeated by Napoleon's forces in 1808. After three years when he was in Buenos Aires, he left the Spanish royalists army and joined the independence movement and began to organize an army to resist Spanish loyalists. He moved up in the Argentina independence army quickly and he replaced General Belgrano as the chief army general fighting the royalist forces of the Peru vice-royalty. San Martin organized an army and moved to Mendoza and eventually to Chile. In 1818, the Royalist forces were finally defeated in Chile. Then he set a Naval force and on July 28, 1821 along with Bolivar entered Lima and Peru declared independence. The Brazilian independence also came by external influence yet without any bloodshed. When Napoleon conquered the Portugal in 1808, John, Prince Regent, run away with his court to Brazil and arrived in Bahia. Dom Joao settled in Rio de Janeiro. He became the king of Brazil. In 1821, Dom Joao went back to Portugal and he left his son, Dom Pedro I is left in charge of Brazil. Liberal intellectual and independence advocate, Jose Bonifacio de Andrada became his advisor. He spelled these liberal policies and motivated the dormant colony. He was considered the father of Brazil's independence. When Joao requested the Dom Pedro to go back, with the support of Bonifacio, Dom Pedro issues the "Cry of Ypiranga" declaration of independence of Brazil (Bolton, pp. 448-474). In case of Mexico, as the French troops invaded Spain in 1808, Hidalgo, who was a priest set secret group of intellectuals who plotted against the French and advocated independence or loyalty to Spanish king Ferdinand. Soon the plan was exposed. Hildago fearing retaliation from the Spanish Army, he decided to act promptly. In a symbolic move, he rang the church bells in the town of Dolores on September 16, 1810 calling the parishioners to a revolution against the Spanish. Following Hildago and an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, thousands of indigenous people rose in arms and marched over Mexico City. More than a movement for independence, this was an indigenous rebellion against the Mexican elite. When he was about to march into Mexico City, Hidalgo hesitated for a few days and his movement lost momentum. Eventually, Hidalgo was captured and shot. The movement was contained but new independence sparks occurred in the 1810s in different parts of the country. Jose Maria Morelos took on Hidalgo's movement, but he was also killed in 1815. Eventually, after a number of revolts Mexico achieve independence in 1821. The most of Latin American colonies announced their independence after the invasion of Napoleon. Another similar thing among their independence movements is that they all did not like to be the part of French Empire. Initially when Spanish and Portages were defeated all the colonial states announced their freedom yet as the Spanish regain the control of her colonial territories, riots developed between Spanish loyalists and patriots and after a decades the patriots successfully overthrew the loyalists and whole of region was librated from colonial rules. Works Cited "Background Notes: Haiti" State.gov. January 2007. 14 March 2007 Bolton, E. H. "The Epic of Greater America." American Historical Review 38(3). April. 1933: 448-474. American Historical Association. Washington, DC. 12 March 2007 "History of Latin America" Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. 14 February 2007. 10 March 2007 . Read More