Shamanism in Korea - Essay Example

? 22 December Shamanism in Korea The study of Shamanism gives an extremely interesting understanding of indigenous folk religions of Northeast Asia. Shamanism deals with a wide range of practices and beliefs through which their practitioners (shamans) communicate with the spiritual world. Shamans have long been considered as hunter-gatherers and nomads (Stutley 6). However, shamans are equivalent to priests and are often consulted by their communities for advice on important tasks. Shamans engage in divination and healing, serving as intermediaries between the spirit world and the human world, and are involved in preserving the "psychomental equilibrium" of their clan (Stutley 6). Ordinary individuals can only become shamans when they receive their calling. They tread supernatural dimensions and specialize in spiritual, mental and physical healing with the help of spirits (San-Hung A3). The present paper portrays an overview of shamanism in Korea. Korean shamanism is still an active practice and is deeply rooted in the people's ethnic consciousness (Stutley 23). It not only coexisted with other major religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, but also influenced them. The rituals performed by Korean shamans range from pig offerings for placating the gods, to walking barefoot on sharp knives to intimidate evil spirits (San-Hung A3). Shamanism in Korea has a rich history. It has affected the political, cultural and religious aspects of the country and survived years of suppression by foreign and local powers. This paper attempts to provide a brief overview of Korean shamanism, detailing its origins, concepts of god, rituals, songs, materialistic beliefs, and healing therapies. It also discusses the suppressions experienced by shamanism, and its post-modern revival. This would provide a good understanding of the Korean folk religion that is witnessing a growing interest from all quarters of the world. Korean Shamanism Overview Shamanism in Korea is known as sin'gyo, which means 'the religion of the gods'. It includes a sun and a bear cult apart from ancestor worship, suggesting a link between Korean shamanism and Siberian, Manchurian and Central Asian cultures. Prior to the advent of the Choson Dynasty, Korean shamans had a high social status and some were even rulers. For instance, the second ruler of the Sila Dynasty, Namhae, was a shaman. The high social standing and privileges enjoyed by shamans were lost since the arrival of other religions in South Korea. Yet, there were about 100,000 shamans in Korea in 1973. Until Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, most shamans retained their functions at national sacrificial and royal rites. The Japanese destroyed most of the native religion by arresting shamans and raiding sacrificial ceremonies and offerings. Once Korea was liberated from Japan in 1945, shamans and their followers were persecuted by hostile Christians, who called them "devotees of the devil" (Stutley 23). Shamanism in Communist North Korea had to go underground due to its intolerance towards the folk religion. Shamanism in Korea is based on native ancient beliefs and traditions. Most shamans are women who found their calling after realizing they could serve as mediators between the spirit world and the human world, after surviving a critical sickness. According to their beliefs, spirits of ancestors, animals, trees and even non-living things exist in the air and interact with people, affecting their lives and fortunes (San-Hung A3). The Origin of Korean Shamanism The origin of Korean shamanism is not certain and is difficult to determine (Lee 135). This is because of the complexity of the religion as its practices diversified in different provinces, making it difficult to trace the source of its origin. Unsuccessful attempts were made during the end of the Yi Dynasty to unify the various practices of shamanism into one system (Lee I 135). While the term Mu was used to refer to shamans prior to the Yi Dynasty, the use of the term Mudang to refer to shamans was a common occurrence during the Yi Dynasty (Lee II 3). Mudang means shrine or alter of shamans, and it is suggested that the location of shamans' alters came to be identified with the shamans themselves (Lee II 3). Furthermore, it is also believed that 'Mudang' may be a korean word used for referring shamans. The term was used to refer to female shamans; however, it is not exclusive to females and is also often implied for male shamans. Female shamans were more common and so, it is believed that the term mudang became more characteristic of female shamans (Lee II 3). Several folk myths and legends have been investigated in order to identify the origin of mudangs and shamanism. For instance, Lee (I) investigated the origins of shamanistic traditions and mudangs based on local legends and myths. One such legend described by Lee (II) concerns the story of Holy Mother. A book, named Muyo Sokgo, written by an unknown author, describes a man by the name Pobu Hwasang, who had eight girls and lived at Hamyang during the Sila Dynasty (6). All eight girls practiced shamanism after departing in different directions. According to tradition, Pobu Hwasang while taking a walk saw a mountain flood that was without rain. He looked up the mountain peak assuming that the flood may have originated from up there. On looking up the mountain peak, he saw a strong, tall woman who identified herself as the "Holy Mother of the heavenly king" (qtd. in Lee II 6). She transformed into a human being and married Pobu Hwasang from a divination performed in water. They then bore eight girls who were taught different practices of shamanism and were told to praise Amidha Buddha and to revere the name of Pobu Hwasang. These eight girls dispersed all over the country to teach shamanism. Lee suggests that the Holy mother is identical with "God of Mt. Chiri" and that the symbols of mountain and Holy mother in the legend are the origins of present day Mudangs (6). He also concludes that the reference to Amidha Buddha indicates that the story originated after the arrival of Buddhism in Korea. Several other legends have also been considered for deriving the origin of shamanism in Korea. The diversification of the shaman religion has made it difficult to ascertain its progression and origin so much so that Hulbert has summarized it as "a religion of the mosaic" (qtd. in Lee I 135). According to several other scholars, Korean shamanism "is the most thoroughgoing synthesis of Taoism and Buddhism", and the three are united to such an extent that it is "almost impossible to separate them" (qtd in Lee I 135). Shamans are independent, follow different gods and do not share a single body of scriptures. Moreover, they are highly adaptable (San-Hung A3). Concept of Gods Shamans worship many gods. According to a survey reported in the New York Times, about 273 categories of gods are worshipped by Korean shamans, with 10,000 gods in various sub-categories (San-Hung A3). It is opined that Korean shamanism embraces almost everything from other religions, resulting in a melting pot of sorts (San-Hung A3). The religion compromises not only with other religions but also with social change, which may be the reason behind its survival for over a thousand years (San-Hung A3). Pentikainen (I) categorized shaman's gods into four distinct categories as follows: (I) Gods for whom various rituals are performed (73 gods belong to this category) (II) Gods depicted in shaman paintings (115 gods belong to this category) (III) Gods for whom rituals are performed at different shrines such as the Sanshindang shrine for the mountain spirit (138 gods belong to this category) (IV) Household gods in private houses (11 gods belong to this category) There are a total of 273 gods excluding those that are repeated in two or more of the four categories. These gods are further classified into three categories, those that originate from nature – Gods of Sun, Moon, Heaven, Mountain spirits, Earth, Directions, Gates, Childbirth, Stones, Trees, Wind, Water, Fire, Road and Travel, Diseases, Animals, Heavenly Warriors and Evil spirits; those that originate from humans – Gods who were princesses, queens, kings, military generals, wives and daughters of generals, gods of Buddhist and Taoist origins, and Gods of common men; and the third category includes all other gods (Pentikainen 236). The concept of divine figures or gods in shamanism can be explained on the basis of polytheistic animism (Pentikainen 236). Shaman gods are of both human and animistic origins and have human attributes. Some of the gods are also described as spirits. Each shaman god is all-powerful and transmits messages to humans through physical punishment instead of revelations. Therefore, they are objects of fear, and rather than inspiring devotion, they instill the fear of their wrath in their devotees. According to shamanistic beliefs, gods' wishes govern the life and death, destiny, rise and fall, wellness and illness, happiness and misery of humans. Shamans offer food rather than supplication through spiritual prayers to the gods whose reward to them depends on the amount and quality of food offered (Kim 239). Fundamental Rituals, Songs and Prayers Shamanism in Korea comprises of many elaborate rituals. However, the Chaesu gut, which is the ritual of prosperity and welfare, is regarded as being a representative of all other shamanistic rituals (Lee II 27). This ritual is a rite of seasonal blessing and ancestral reverence, and is still an important practice in present day rural and urban homes in Korea. The ritual is also known as the ritual of seasonal offerings or Chonsin gut, which involves offering new fruits and crops for blessings and prosperity (Lee II 27). The preparations for this gut begin with the selection of an appropriate date. This gut is the fundamental ritual or basis for all other rituals and comprises of twelve orders that are commonly known as Yoldu gori, which means twelve ritualistic steps. Each step is for a particular spirit or god. The texts of the songs of these twelve ritualistic steps are not uniform and vary widely. Texts from the same geographical area also vary from one another. Each mudang memorizes certain vital passages and adds her own reflections at specific moments in the rituals. Written texts are discouraged and spontaneity is stressed upon. The texts of the songs and prayers have been transferred from one mudang or shaman to the other orally. The meaning of the songs is often difficult to comprehend. More emphasis is laid on the overall spirit of the ceremony and less on the actual wordings of the prayers, songs and oracles. The rhythmic movement and song of the mudang induces an ecstatic trance, which is important for an effective shamanic ritual. The songs are often less refined and eloquent as mudangs belong to the lowest social class and mostly have no formal education (Lee II 28). Materialistism Shamanism places more emphasis on the fulfillment of worldly wishes (Kim 119). As Kim describes it, With its emphasis on the existence of spirits, particularly those of ancestors, that are believed to wield power on shifting fortunes of each individual, Shamanism has thus catered to this-worldly, materialistic, fatalistic, magical, and even utilitarian tendencies of Koreans. As such, Shamanism has been the enduring core of Korean religious and cultural thought, exercising a profound influence on the development of Korean attitudes and behaviors as well as cultural practices (119). The main purpose of shamanism is the fulfillment of practical needs as people seek the services of a shaman to help them in the fulfillment of their material wishes such as male births, health, longetivity, wealth and prosperity (Kim 119). Shamanistic Therapy and Healing Shamans practiced exorcism of evil spirits and cured diseases (Walter 210; Kim 119). For instance, in case a member of the community suffered from the loss of his/her soul, a shaman would search for that soul and restore it. Prior to this, the shaman would diagnose whether the soul was actually stolen, spooked away or strayed away on its own during a usual activity (Walter 210). The treatment would be done through the shamanistic 'soul catching' ritual or through other procedures. Shamans have their own societies and each shamanistic society has its own procedure for diagnosis and classification of diseases. Some of the causes that may result in a disease include a taboo breach, karma from past actions, and intrusion into the body by a foreign object, etc. Modern shamans have also included the 'germ theory of disease' in their schema, and refer diseased individuals to allopathic physicians (Walter 210). Shamanism also incorporates symbolic healing as a major part of its healing therapies. For instance, a drum serves as a vehicle using which a shaman attains altered states of consciousness to ride into the spirit world (Walter 210). Moreover, imagination play and mental imagery are also important components of shamanic healing. According to Richard Katz, the shamanic rituals have introduced the concept of a "synergistic healing community" as shamanistic healing involves not only the diseased person but also his community and family (qtd. in Walter 210). The shamanic healing procedures have been noted to be in parallel to modern behavior therapy, milieu therapy, family therapy, hypnosis, dream interpretation and psychodrama (Walter 210). Torrey observes that shamans and contemporary psychotherapists share more similarities than differences with regard to practices in healing (qtd. in Walter 210). Conclusion As already stated, Korean shamanism was subjected to persecution and suppression for centuries by state authorities (Kim II 195). Shamanism was long dismissed as being superstition. It is also believed to be negatively associated with women (Kim II 195). Christian missionaries "demonized" shamans and drove them underground during the colonial rule of Japan (San-Hung A3). Military governments that arrived after the Korean War banished them and mocked them as charlatans. Their shrines were also burned down (San-Hung A3). In the present age, most people still regard shamanism in Korea as being mere superstition but do acknowledge the fact that it is an important part of the indigenous culture of Korea, worthy of preservation. This is also because the shamanic rituals have preserved the traditional dance forms, music and costumes over centuries. Therefore, modern governments have promoted and documented these rituals as "intangible cultural assets" (San-Hung A3). According to the Korea Worshippers Association, about 300,000 shamans still exist in South Korea, one for every 160 individuals (San-Hung A3). They are highly adaptable, as reported by the New York Times, which reported that when South Korea witnessed an internet boom, shamans instantly set up commercial websites that provided services for fortune telling online, and also maintained web logs (San-Hung A3). The high adaptability of shamanism is also evidenced by the fact that it has acquired the practices of other religions and societies and merged them into its own. It is reported that some shamans have been found to venerate Jesus Christ, Virgin Mary and even a late South Korean military strongman – Park Chung-hee (San-Hung A3). Korean shamanism is a cultural heritage with a rich history of development. It is important to preserve this important repository of indigenous folklore as it encompasses many folk legends and mythology and has safeguarded many aspects of traditional Korean culture through ritualistic preservation. Works Cited Kim, Andrew E. " Korean Religious Culture and its Affinity to Christianity: The Rise of Protestant Christianity in South Korea." Sociology of Religion 61.2 (2000): 117-133. Kim, Di Chongho (II). Korean Shamanism: the cultural paradox. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, 2003. Lee, Jung Young (I). "Concerning the Origin and Formation of Korean Shamanism." Numen 20.2 (1973): 135-159. Lee, Jung Young (II). Korean shamanistic rituals. The Netherlands: Mouton Publishers, 1981. Pentikainen, Juha (Ed). Shamanism and Northern ecology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Sang-Hun, Choe. "Shamanism Enjoys Revival in Techno-Savvy South Korea." The New York Times. 22 Dec. 2011. Web. Stutley, Margaret. Shamanism: an introduction. London: Routledge, 2003. Walter, Mariko Namba (Ed). Shamanism: Eurasia - Africa, Volume 2. California: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Read More