Characteristics of Apocalyptic Literature - Essay Example

? Characteristics of apocalyptic literature Introduction Apocalyptic literature also referred to as Apocalypticism is a category of biblical writing that flourished when the post-Exilic Jewish culture was in vogue, and was appreciated especially by the early Christians of the millennialism, originating around 200 years before Christ and continuing till around third century CE (White, The genre of apocalypse in early Jewish and Christian tradition). The term "Apocalypse" (??????????) originates from a Greek word apokalypsis which meant "revelation," "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling” (Goswiller, 3). Apocalyptic genre of literature was written during a period of unrest and religious persecution, when people believed that their world being completely by evil forces. Some believed that God had failed them, while others were waiting for heavenly redemption referred to as the Day of the Lord (Joel 2:1-3). Apocalyptic literature dealt with the eternal fight that exists between good and the evil, and through Apocalypse, which portrayed the writers’ visions as etched by the heavenly Angel, asked people to keep faith despite their daily tribulations (Charlesworth, 5-89). The form of literature encompassing both Christianity and Judaism is seen for a considerable period in history, starting from the years after exile, until the end of the Middle Ages (ibid). Apocalyptical literary aspects are seen in books of Zechariah and Joel, while Isaiah (chapters 24-27 and 33) reflect a strong apocalyptic form. The Book of Daniel represents a classic example of this form of literature. A part of the first Testament, the Book of Daniel was composed during the rule of Antiochus IV (167-64 BC) of the Seleucid dynasty, who was carrying out large scale Jewish persecution. This book an epitome of ‘apocalyptism’ is considered to be written as a support for the Jewish resistance against Antiochus IV, which was spearheaded by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers (Ferch, 129). Here the story is set in the background where Nebuchadnezzar, the king Babylon, exiled the Jews and the book shows Daniel (the hero) to remain faithful, even though facing persistent persecution. Here ‘The Ancient One’ or God, judges the four ancient kingdoms of the Persians, Babylonians, Greeks and Medes (portrayed as four beasts) that persecuted Israel (the Jews) (Daniel 7). The book shows how power and glory is ultimately restored to the people of God, by the defeat of the kingdom of beasts. In the New Testament, Revelation is the only book, which can be categorised as apocalyptic in nature, it uses a complex symbolic language and numerology to represent various visions and divine messages, and the author, in order to avoid Roman subversion, uses Hebrew scripts taken from the Book of Daniel, the Book of Exodus, and from Zechariah, Joel, and Isaiah. All forms of apocalyptic literature have certain basic characteristics, which include: the notions that Israel must be made free from any kind of foreign interference for a complete fulfilment of their religion; divine intervention was necessary to save mankind; future events, already determined by God, were revealed to some prophets in the past (from the post exile period and pre dated Ezra) as visions (this is seen mainly in the Hebrew form of apocalyptic literature); rising Messianic hopes (Dan 9:25) and emphasis on some form of afterlife or resurrection that would ensure divine justice (Dan 12:2); and the assurance that in future the good would be provided with salvation, while the wicked punished. In this context, we will first examine the fourth beast of Daniel 7:7-12 and the first beast of Revelation 13:1-10, and then study in details the characteristics of apocalyptic literature with special focus on Revelation and Daniel 7. Discussion Identification of the fourth beast of Daniel 7:7-12 and the first beast of Revelation 13:1-10: In Hebrew Bible, ‘Daniel 7’ is the seventh chapter within the Book of Daniel, and is composed in Aramaic. This chapter highlights the first of the apocalyptic series of visions received by Daniel, and some of the visions have Delphic interpretations. This chapter describes visions where four beasts (like a lion, a bear, a leopard and a fourth beast) were seen coming out of the sea, along with a vision of "one like the Son of Man" (Dan 7:13-14) as he came in the ‘Ancient of Days.’ Some of these visions were interpreted to Daniel, but the none of the four beasts were distinctly identified with any particular kingdom. Despite this lack of clarity on the writer’s part in identifying the beasts, right from the second century until date, Christian theologians have presented various theories on the actual identities of these beasts, even though the matter remains open to much speculation (Stevens, 1-10). The most common and traditional form of interpretations categorise these four beasts (from first to fourth in order) as the Babylonian Empire, Achaemenid Empire (Medo-Persia rule), the Macedonian (Greece) Empire, and lastly the Roman Empire. Some of the Christian theologians from the middle ages identified the four beasts with empires from a later period, more contemporary to their times, and believed that prophecies by Daniel yet remained unfulfilled (ibid). The fourth beast as seen by Daniel in a vision appeared as extremely dreadful, with its iron teeth and its bronze claws. The beast crushed, devoured, and trampled all under its feet, was different from the other three beasts, and had ten horns. (Dan 7:19). When asked for an interpretation it was revealed to Daniel (Dan 7:23-25) that “the fourth beast, shall be fourth kingdom on earth…different from all other kingdoms, and shall devour the whole earth...the ten horns are ten kings who shall rise from this kingdom. And another shall rise after them…and shall subdue three kings…speak pompous words against the Most High…persecute the Saints…change times and law” (cited in, Ballard, 26). Thus, it clearly portrays the fourth beast as the most evil ruler amongst the four beasts seen in Daniel’s vision, and it would rule for around three and a half years (the last part in Daniel’s 70th week- Dan 9: 27). Here the beast according to majority of interpretations represented the Roman Empire, which is quite clear in the translation that claimed that the fourth beast “conquered the kingdom of Macedon; with Illyricum and Epirus; in the eighth year of Antiochus Epiphanes Anno Nabonass. 580; and inherited that of Pergamus, Anno Nabonass. 615; and conquered that of Syria, Anno Nabonass. 679, and that of Egypt, Anno Nabonass. 718. and that of Egypt, Anno Nabonass. 718” (Newton, 26). Revelation, in theological terms refers to the disclosing or revealing of future events and the enemies of God, through communication between God’s chosen prophets and the heavenly entity(s) (1:1, 1:3, 1:19, 4:1, 22:6, 22:10). This form of literature seen in other biblical texts like Zechariah or Daniel was mostly composed under false names of famous historical characters, like Enoch or Moses. Revelation was different in this case, where the author’s name was shown as John, a common household name (Taylor, 7-8). The disclosure which is generally made by heavenly being(s) or angel(s), in the book Revelation, clearly claims God as the sole author of all future destinies, interceded by his son Jesus Christ, and the angel. Apocalyptic form is seen in Revelation through the extensive use of symbolic texts and numerical figures, and portrays the eternal strife that exists between the evil and good in earth. It reveals that man being powerful to fight evil must wait for divine intervention. Revelation distinguishes between the worshippers of God and idol worshippers, and the author, John, clearly states that only God must be worshipped (Rev 9 and 13). In this context, Taylor claims that within Revelation there are clear implications of eternal torment for those that worship the beast and his image since they are guilty of idolatry, which is evident in 13:4 where John makes it clear the beast (the dragon), is controlled by Satan (Taylor, 9). The beast in the 13th chapter of Revelation is shown to have “ten horns and seven heads, with ten crowns on his horns, and on each head a blasphemous name…[like]a leopard, but had feet like those of a bear and a mouth like that of a lion. The dragon gave the beast his power (cited in Taylor, 128). In Rev 11:7, we find that a beast comes out of an abyss to wage war against two believers, and later kills them after their testimonies are over. The same beast in Rev 12:7 then goes to fight against those that obeyed God’s commandments, and in 13:1 we find it comes back to fight against the saints. Thus, it is quite clear that he is shown as the Devil’s advocate, with seven heads and ten horns (akin to the fourth beast in Daniel), while the master assigns the beast his authority and power (13:2). The seven heads of the beast can be read as the Seven Hills of Rome (in John’s time), or they may even be interpreted as the seven kings (Rev 17:9), and both symbolic translations reveal great power. Since the beast is an adherent of the devil it can be naturally assumed that those that worship or give in to the temptation put forth by the beast are also natural allies of the devil (Rev 3-6). This is must be avoided as Christ himself did not succumb to the temptations put forth by Satan (Mat 4:8-10). The beast as represented in 13: 1-10 is the culmination of all the four beasts seen in Daniel 7 (Rev 13:2), thus portraying an anti-Christ and animal like earthly empire. Thus, we find a connection where we see the pronouncement of God’s message in relation to political powers to be demonstrated in the future within the specific context of history, and this process is known as apocalyptic eschatology. The beast described in Rev 13:1-10 can be said to represent the political “Roman Empire of John’s time and subsequent ungodly empires since then culminating supremely in the empire of the antichrist” (Taylor, 129). Here the message that is transpired, asks the saints and God’s followers to restrain themselves from fighting against the beast, and instead to endure patiently while remaining faithful, despite torture and persecution by the beast and the devil (similar to what we find in Mat 5:38-39 and 5:43-48). Thus, it is obvious that in Daniel 7 (the fourth beast) and the beast in Revelation (13:1-10) both are symbolic representations of the Roman Empire, where the Jews were persistently persecuted and often exiled (Daniel 7) and the scriptures were written in codes to reflect and record the terrible plight of the Jews under the Romans. Here we also find the Roman emperors who were looked upon as Gods by the citizens, were deemed an act of blasphemy, (Christian and Jewish theology), since for true believers of these religion, God is the only Supreme One, and no human can be looked upon as God, except for Jesus Christ (Revelation 13). Critical analysis of apocalyptic literature (Revelation and Daniel): Even though the earlier translators working on the interpretation of prophetic books like Daniel or Revelation, put them under the theme of “apocalyptic literature,” and classified them as revealing the future prophecies of God. Modern interpreters belonging to the evangelical group however revealed a new aspect to the apocalyptic literature. The modern writers contend that the books of Daniel, Ezekiel, and Revelation form a part of various non-canonical writings that often transcend the borders of biblical writings (McKenzie, chapter 4). They claim that these books were written at the time of when Testaments were being composed a process that continued until second century A.D. (Murphy 130-33). Apocalyptic literature generally shows certain specific attributes, which are: Extensive use of symbolism and numerical; Revelation through different forms of visions and help from the heavenly angel(s); Strong emphasis on an ideal past, disturbed present, and the visions of a better future, where all tribulations end in heavenly catastrophe, and salvation for the ‘good’ and final destruction of all evil, and the final act where the kingdom of God prevails; an intermediary having royal duties; presence of both evil (Satan) and good (God), a presumption that man not being able to change fight the devil, divine intervention is necessity and a showdown is inevitable between evil and good to save mankind (Koch, 28-33; Gregg 10-12). Since Daniel, Ezekiel, and Revelation show many of the aforementioned characteristics, they naturally classified as apocalyptic literature, while Revelation, is seen as a classic example of apocalyptic literature. Despite these similarities, labelling them as strictly apocalyptic literature tends to change some of the importance of socio-cultural translation of Revelation and Daniel (Dan 7), and even challenges some of the fundamental hermeneutical principles used while translating the books (Bernard, 149-154). While interpreting Christian scripture it becomes a difficult task to adopt a literal approach, and in this context Gregg opines that in case of apocalyptic literature literal approach does not to work, as these texts have a good deal of symbolism instead of literalism (Gregg, 11). Since apocalyptic literature is written at a time of stress and comprise of ‘crisis’ literature (Jews being persecuted by Romans), they cannot be translated literally (Collins, 38). Here writers tend to exaggerate the crisis. Thus, it is quite evident in John’s writings in Revelation (similar exaggerations are also seen in Daniel) where he states that “over a quarter of the earth” being destroyed (Rev 6:8; 9:15) and “No earthquake like it has ever occurred since man has been on earth” (Rev 16:18) and such passages cannot be translated literally. These events are directly related to some historical events where people suffered persecution, as the Jews did under the oppressive Romans. Thus, the coded terms used for translating revelation imply that the global scenarios as shown in the book are in all probability, local history. It is quite possible that Revelation and in Daniel coded symbols were used to in fear of retaliatory actions if the oppressors were directly identified by the writers (Kallas, 70). Thus, we find that multivalence (within hermeneutics) must be considered when classifying Revelation as apocalyptic literature; and since the Babylonian (often Babylon was used to represent Rome) suppression was used to depict crisis of a much later period (Collins, 51). Thus, a strong presence of multivalence in Revelation and Daniel 7 clearly shows that the various catastrophes as described in the books are not one particular incident, but may have taken place many times through the entire course of world history. This is evident when Babylon (obliquely referred in Daniel 7 and Revelation) refers to Jerusalem, as well to some future empire. Some authors also claim that the beast in Revelation 13:1-10 may refer to Nero, and refer at the same time to an antichrist person from the distant future (Pate and Haines, 42-44). There are also dissenting views amongst the writers belonging to the Seventh Day Adventists group in interpreting the lamb as represented in Revelation 13: 11-19. While earlier Adventists interpreted it as their Saturday Sabbath, another writer Uriah Smith from the same group interpreted it as representing USA, on the other hand D.S. Warner interpreted it as representing Protestantism (Riggle, Adventism refuted). Thus, we find varying views in the interpretation of the symbolism, so evident in Revelation. Daniel 7 (the only part in the book of Daniel), appears as more apocalyptic in form with its portrayal of the four beasts and their future destruction by God, with an anonymous writer, which is more in line with the common characteristics that we see in all books that fall under the apocalyptic genre. The classification of Revelation (specifically) as apocalyptic literature also influences the interpretation of the numerical figures seen within the book. In other forms of apocalyptic literature, we find that numbers are used for portraying certain specific concepts, and not for counting units (Gregg, 11-12). Thus, if Revelation is classified strictly within the apocalyptic genre, then the interpretation of the book moves away from literalism towards the concept of symbolism. This is evident when we find that some authors claim that number 1000 written six times in Rev. 20, actually means a long period instead of literally meaning 1000 years. Similarly, some writers also prefer to avoid literalism when reading the figure 144,000 in Rev 7. Revelation unlike other apocalyptic literature tends to use numerical for representing specific unit counts. Some scholars contend that the numerical figures seen in Revelation, like 42 months (in Rev 11:2; 13:5) or 1260 days (in Rev 12:6) are direct references to the incomplete parts in the seventy weeks of Daniel’s prophecy (in Dan 9:24-27). Hoehner in his studies implied that the completed parts of the prophecy possessed the potential of being correct almost to the very day (Hoehner, 115-39), thus putting forth the notion that numbers in Rev are not merely for communicating purposes, but are actual counting units. Here another author claims that in Revelation, symbolic numerical figures are not verifiable, and one should always go for interpreting the numbers in a manner that is not symbolic in nature (Thomas, Revelation 8 to 22, 408). Here a special reference must be made to the differences in opinion that exist between the Church of God and the Seventh Day Adventists in interpretations of numerical seen in the books of Revelation and Daniel (especially regarding the numerical 2300 days seen in Dan 8:14) (Klapwijk, 119-129). Herein again, we find differences in the view of the study of numerical figures as seen within Revelation, when classified as strictly apocalyptic in nature. Differences between apocalyptic literature and Revelation -Daniel (except Daniel 7): Besides the aforementioned pointers, the similarity of Revelation with Daniel (where only Daniel 7 is seen as being genuinely apocalyptic in nature) and Ezekiel, also leads to speculation on whether it should be classified under the apocalyptic literature. The prophesises of Daniel and Ezekiel were made almost four centuries before the apocalyptic literature came into vogue. Furthermore, Revelation (Rev 12:1) takes ideas directly from Genesis 37:9-10, events that occurred nearly 1800 years prior to the actual composition of apocalyptic literature. Thus, we find that there are more differences between Revelation and the typical apocalyptic literary (Thomas, Evangelical Hermeneutics, 323-38). Besides the aforementioned ones, we find that a majority of the apocalyptic works were pseudonymous, yet the book of Revelation has its author’s name (John). Revelation is more optimistic in nature (by portraying God’s optimism in man’s present and future, presented through the ‘lamb’), whereas in apocalyptic forms, we find that hopelessness when viewing the human history. Apocalyptic works do not generally have any epistles, however in Revelation we find, seven epistles (Rev 2–3). With some odd exceptions (Enoch 91:19), it has been seen that apocalyptic literature does not portray any strong sense of morality on the other hand Revelation shows strong moral commandments and the concept of repentance. This is evident in Jesus Christ’s admonition to the seven churches, and the advice to repent is repeatedly present in the entire book (Rev 2:5, 16, 21, 22; 3:3, 19, 9:20-21; 16:9, 11). Furthermore, in all works classified under apocalyptic genre, the coming of the saviour takes place in future, however Revelation shows Christ being present, while the future is also revealed through his death in redemption. Even though the apocalyptic writers did not view suffering as being good, Revelation clearly depicts that suffering is God’s giving (Rev 5:5), thus must be borne with equanimity (Kallas, 69-80). Apocalyptic literature is also prophetic (pseudo) in nature, which means prophecies are generally made after the incident occurs, (here historical incidents are used for making future prophecies). In Revelation, however, we find that John views the future from his present (Morris 94). Thus, it is clear that even though Revelation does share some characteristics with apocalyptic literature, it cannot be classified as being truly and stringently apocalyptic in nature. Conclusion From the above discourse, it is clear that while Daniel 7 is closer to being a typical apocalyptic form of literary work, Revelation and Daniel as a whole show only certain basic similarities with apocalyptic genre. They cannot be strictly classified as being apocalyptic literature. The admonitions as interpreted from the Revelation are similar to the ones in Old Testament through hermeneutics (Alexander,  Hermeneutics of Old Testament Apocalyptic Literature) which showed that people were not only to asked to seek repentance, but were also shown comforting visions of being accorded future justice and victory (Amos 9:11–15; Isa 40–66; Ezek 36–48). Categorizing the book as being prophetic in nature is also supported by the fact that it refers to the Book of Daniel, and since Daniel was alluded by Christ as being a prophet (Matt 24:15), Revelation also automatically should come under the category of prophetic literature. The word apokalypsis at the start of the book does not translate into the fact that Revelation is strictly apocalyptic in nature, nor does it mean that the book cannot be classified as being prophetic in nature, and the word apokalypsis at the start may only mean that the book reveals facts from historical events. References Alexander, R. 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Print. Newton, I., Sir. Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John, 1733. Web. 4th November 2011.  http://www.historicism.com/Newton/newton.pdf. Pate, M., and Haines, C. Doomsday Delusions. InterVarsity Press: Downers Grove, 1995. Print. Riggle, H. Adventism refuted. The Gospel Trumpet 19, July 26, Aug 3 and Aug 24, 1899. Print. Smith, U. Daniel and Revelation. Nashville: Southern Publishing Association, 1944. Print. Stevens, K. Daniel: Touchstone of Prophecy. Lulu publishers, e-book. Taylor, R. Revelation: A Reference Commentary. 2000. Web. 3rd November 2011. http://www.apocalipsis.org/downloads/revelatn.pdf Tenney, M. Interpreting Revelation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957. Print. Thomas, R. Evangelical Hermeneutics: The New Versus the Old. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2002. Print. Thomas, R. “A Classical Dispensationalist View of Revelation.” In, Four Views on the Book of Revelation, C. Marvin Pate (ed.). Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998. Print. Thomas, R. Revelation 1 to 7: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1992. Print. Thomas, R. Revelation 8 to 22: An Exegetical Commentary. Chicago: Moody Press, 1992. Print. Varner, W. “Apocalyptic Literature.” In, Dictionary of Premillennial Theology, Mal Couch (ed.). Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1996. Print. Walvoord, J. The Revelation of Jesus Christ. Chicago: Moody Press, 1966. Print. White, M. The genre of apocalypse in early Jewish and Christian tradition. Apocalyptic literature in Judaism and early Christianity. 2011. Web. 2nd November 2011, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/white.html The Christian biblical scriptures read from various sources are as follows: Revelation Daniel Zechariah, Joel,  Isaiah Matthew Amos Ezek Read More