Comparative Religion - Essay Example

? Comparative Religions Introduction Religion has been one of the most studied and yet the most intriguing notions of society. Particularly, one can observe no other discourse more discussed, pointed fingers at, probed, and studied than the religion. Scientists, philosophers, theologians, scholars, logicians and many other seekers of knowledge have devoted their life completely to the understanding of religion as a process. There have been in the religious discourse, plenty of theories and theoretical paradigms pertaining to the need, purpose and the importance of religion in the lives of the people who follow them. Some of these theories are worth noting. For instance, James Frazer (pp. 232-246), an anthropologist of evolutionary school of thought, places religion in a nonlinear hierarchical evolutionary ladder in which, the first step is magic followed by religion and subsequently by science. He argues that the earlier people were not aware of the ‘real’ reasons behind the natural processes and so, came up with explanations that now sound fantastical and unlikely. These explanations form the realm of magic and soothe the human anxiety when the mind could not find any other explanation. However, man soon realized that magic could not work in all situations and there has to be a definite propitiation of the higher power in the way things pan out in the universe and thus religion was born. According to Frazer (pp. 256-278), it came out of a need to reconcile the ideal with the real i.e. the happenings of the real world were not explained completely by the human intervention alone and thus the need for a divine explanation was born. A related theory of Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist, presents religion as a response to the need of putting the responsibility of one’s action off to a higher invisible power, usually male which represents the innate need of man to be able to depend on a strong male figure. Although highly infamous and usually discredited, this theory does lay sufficient groundwork in answering the question of why people need religion in their lives and why, more importantly, it provides them the comfort that it is reported to provide. However, the most intriguing and interesting feature of the religious discourse is its diversity. The religions across the world are diverse in all respects. Some base their belief system on the existence of one God, while others believe in a series of gods and goddesses; still others seem to reject the idea of God altogether. These religions are monotheism, polytheism and atheism respectively (n.d., 56). This is the most primary way of classifying religion. There are other ways too. Some religions stem from myths whereas others from revealed books. Some religions revolve around a charismatic leader or an inspirational figure, whose guidelines form the foundation of the ethical conduct of the religion. The comparative analysis of the religions is one of the most popular streams in religious discourses in present-day academia. Scholars take great interest in juxtaposing religions to each other, comparing different common units to each other. The scope of this paper limits itself to such a comparison between two world religions namely, Islam and Hinduism. The paper tries to compare and contrast Islam and Hinduism in several respects and approach some platform of commonalities and differences between the two. Comparison of Religious History The Islam and Hinduism have diverse religious histories. Whereas Islam has a unified, straightforward origin, Hinduism’s history through time is still very much in debate. Islam, as a religion, started in 600 A.D (Lantiqua, 98). Prophet Muhammad, the last messenger of God, according to Quran, the Holy Book of Islam, initiated the religion when he received the first revelation from God via his angel, Gabriel. Islam spread as a movement and approached the doors of Meccans, other Arabs and emperors of neighboring countries by the followers and close friends of Prophet. During this time, the Quran gradually revealed upon him, which, after his demise, still exists as the binder of the Muslims across the world. After the demise of the Prophet, the Caliphs took the reign of the Muslim community. However, with the last breath of the Prophet, the Muslim community divided. Those who believed Prophet’s son-in-law and cousin, Hazrat Ali to be the next leader segregated away as Shi'a whereas those who believed in Prophet’s closest friend, Hazrat Abu Bakr to be the next leader segregates as Sunni Bowman, 70-71). The Shi’a and Sunni divide still exists very prominently and influences the socio-political scenario of the Muslim World. The Islam spread everywhere in a very short spans of time and appropriated itself to the traditions it penetrated into (Bowman, 76). Hinduism on the other hand has varied records about its origin. The religion, although recognized mostly for its emphasis on personal spirituality and the sacredness of its texts, underwent fundamental changes in its history owing to the change in empires, political revolutions and other structural factors. In addition, the history of Hinduism confuses one's mind also because it does not only include the ancient Vedic tradition but is rather a combination of many ancient and new traditions that came into India across the span of centuries. The historians divide the history of Hinduism into several eras. these eras are: the Indus Valley Civilization which existed before 2000 BCE, then the Vedic Period which exists between 1500-500 BCE, the Epic, Puranic or the Classical age which existed between 500 BCE- 500 CE, the Medieval Period, which starts in 500 CE and ends in 1500 CE followed by the Pre-Modern period which ranges from 1500 to 1757 CE. Then comes the British Period, which ranges from 1757-1947 CE and the current period, the Independent India starts right after that and is the current era (Gulati, 56). Both Islam and Hinduism although with varying historical patterns, these religions have been heavily influenced and directed by the socio-political scenarios of their age. Whereas Islam has appropriated itself in the colors of Roman West and the Sassanid East, Hinduism has undergone several changes as the governmental structure and economic conditions of the India changed. Any religion greatly depends on its philosophical ideology in order to appeal to people and their existing belief systems. The teachings of the religion, on the other hand, are the practical manifestations of these beliefs and provide guidance to the followers as to how to live their lives in accordance with the ideologies of the religion they follow. Comparison of Philosophy and Teachings Islam’s philosophy and teachings rely primarily on the concept of one God, Allah. This is the most important philosophy of Islam because the religion of Islam replaced the idol worshipping in Arab by introducing the concept of one God. It was this notion of monotheism that gave birth to the Muslim community of Arab. The Islamic philosophy is also highly reliant upon the notion of the Day of Judgment (U.O.C, 34). Muslims believe wholeheartedly in the temporariness of this world and life and ascertain that whatever one does in their lives, they have to be accountable to Allah in the end, and based on their actions, they will go to Heaven or Hell. Heaven is the eternal residence for good and pious people where they are rewarded with abundance and prosperity forever whereas, Hell is the eternal residence for the evil and malicious kind; the fire of Hell punishes these people forever for their sins. The concept of Heaven and Hell serves an important function in the social structure of Muslim communities. It helps in maintaining the order in the society by incentivizing good deeds and discouraging the evil. It also reinforces the concept of Divine justice. People who are ostracized by the powerful and elite believe that they will attain reward for their patience and their suppressors will suffer for their evil deeds. If this idea were not there, the societal order would perish immediately and people would retaliate against the frustration of the injustices of this world. Finally, the teachings of Islam break into ascending levels. The basic teachings of Islam are Shari’ah, which include the fundamental rules of religion such as prayers, fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca, paying Zakat or funds to poor etc. Then, the next level of teachings are Tariq’at, which comprises of more consolidate path with instructions leading to Haqeeq’at, which comprises of teachings regarding personal search and meditation. When this is successfully completed, the Muslim achieves the fourth stage, the Maarf’at (Waardenburg, 86). Contrary to popular beliefs, the philosophy constituting Hinduism parallels strongly with the Islamic philosophy. The Hindus believe in reincarnation. They believe that each individual has several lifetimes and this notion relates strongly to the notion of Karma, which means that every individual has to face the consequences of his action. Similar to the Western notion of ‘what goes around, comes around’, the Hindu notion of Karma refers to the fruits of one’s action. It holds that individuals who do well in their lifetime are given better physical body in their next. Just like the concept of Heaven and Hell in Islam, this notion maintains the social order of Hindu society by maintaining a balance of good and evil. The concept of Karma incentivizes good deeds and discourages evil (Michaels, pp. 46-57). A polytheistic religion, Hinduism also has a rich cultural content consisting of stories of many gods and goddesses controlling the nature and planet Earth. Some of these stories are short while others are very long, the epics. Two of these epics, Ramayan and Mahabharta are the religious scriptures of Hinduism and contain life stories, dialogues, and tales of the sacred gods of the Hindu cosmos (Michaels, pp. 58-66). These epics form the text of the religious rituals and the ceremonies, which revolve around the mythologies taken from these epics. In addition, the teachings of these epics and mythologies serve as a guiding principle in the lives of Hindus. They take the example of their gods and goddesses and try to apply them in their own lives. Cultural Context from which the Religions arose The religion of Islam originated in the desert areas of Arab Peninsula. Before Islam, the tribes of Arab were of two types: the rich elite Quray’sh who were mostly merchants and traders and safeguarded the House of Allah, Ka’aba. The other half was the nomadic peasants who kept searching for food and water in the deserts of Peninsula. These people practiced polytheism and stuffed the House of Allah with numerous idols who they considered their gods. It was in this context that Islam arose as the religion of one God and final Prophet. The cultural fabric of this society was also very derogatory. The elites and the peasants busied themselves with gambling, drinking, and honor killing. Daughters were disposed off at their birth and women were treated unfairly. Islam, amidst such adverse conditions, arose as a religion of fairness and goodwill. Historians fail to get to the exact origin of Hinduism as a religion. Hinduism is scattered over history and there is not much information available about the origin of the religion. However, since it is limited to the demographics of present-day India, some safe speculations have come to the surface in the past century about the inception of Hinduism. Historians say that the religion of Hinduism came into being under the authority of Seven Sages called Saptarishis (Michaels, pp. 25-40). These patriarchs of the Vedic philosophy and the custodians of its final and original copy enjoyed the reverence of God’s manifestation and viceroys on Earth and held final authority in all matters religious and social. After centuries of reverence that ran in their generations for long, these rishis or sages attained the highest level of sacred and converted into mythological characters thus, giving birth to Hindu mythology. Scholars also note that the inception of this religion laid in the curiosity amongst the early people to find out more about universe and nature. Therefore, Hinduism by origin is the religion that seeks knowledge and truth. All religions have an essence and a form. As the paper shows above, the essence of the religion lies in the scriptural or the mythologies that it emerges through; however, the form of the religion is the effects that it has on the society it penetrates. More specifically, the true manifestation of the religion is visible through its implementation in the moral social and spiritual spheres of the society. Effect of the Religions upon Moral Values within the Cultures The moral values of the society define the ethical fashion of its people. A society with conservative values will punish skimpy clothing whereas a society with a liberal value system will punish fundamentalism. When the religion of Islam spread through different empires and dynasties, it drastically altered their moral fabric. Quran is the source of all such moral influences. For instance, the ban on drinking in all Muslim countries is the result of Quran’s strict order against the act of alcohol consumption. In addition, Islam disdains adultery, theft, and ill-treatment of others. Most empires before conversion to Islam were highly involved in such activities. However, with Islam came a wave of truth seeking, faithfulness and sincerity, which condemned highly all those who acted otherwise. This is how the habits of the people changed with time and Islam imposed its moral values on the cultures it influenced. Similarly, Hinduism influences the moral values of the Indian culture in a very explicit fashion. The Hindu religion treats cow as a holy animal and therefore there is no beef in the entire country of India. Similarly, the notion of female subjugation in the Indian culture stems from the mythologies based in Gita, the Holy Book of Hindus, Ramayan, and Mahabharata (Michaels, pp. 46-57). The male domination and subjugation of women in India often defends itself by using references from these Holy Scriptures and how the goddesses always obeyed their husbands and stood by them through thick and thin. Another way in which Hinduism affects the moral values of the Indian culture is through heightening the status of guests to god. The scriptures of Hinduism instruct all followers to treat their guests with kindness and hospitality. One sees this value reflected in the Indian culture. The guests in the family in India receive utmost respect and the best of the provisions and treatments. Finally, the spirit of patriotism also stems from the fundamentals of Hindu religion. India, like Pakistan, is a religious state and Hinduism is the official state religion. Using this fact, the Indians instill the spirit of patriotism through associating it with the Hindu religion. This way, it becomes impossible for a religious man not to be patriotic towards India or otherwise. Effect of the Religions upon Social Attitudes within the Cultures The religions also affect the social structures and the way people interact within the social fabric. Since all religions or some branches of all religions are communal in nature and prefer public gatherings for rituals and prayers, religions have the tremendous ability to bring together people and create solidarity amongst them. As one notices this pattern, Islam comes across as a very strong example. The fifth pillar of Islam, the pilgrimage to Mecca or Hajj, is an annual convention of Muslims from all across the globe to meet at the Ka’aba, the sacred building for all Abrahamic religions, and perform rituals circling it (Daftary, pp. 20-25). As millions of Muslims circle around the Ka’aba at the same time, uttering the same verses, undergoing the same spiritual transformation, it creates a feeling of fraternity and unity and of universality of Islam. Another example of Islam influencing the social attitudes is the notion of respect for parents and their care. Quran offers strict guidelines regarding proper respect and care of parents when they grow old. The effect of this holy injunction appears rather clearly in the societal structure of Muslim communities. Unlike western cultures where children move out of their parent’s home as soon as they are adults and leave their parents alone to grow old, the Muslim youth stay with their parents even after they are married. The affairs of property and inheritance are also in full authority of parents. The Hindu religion and its guidelines influence the Indian society and the social structure. Like Islam, Hindu scriptures also lay great emphasis on sticking with the family one is born in and respecting the elders and treating them with care (Tiwari, 121). One sees this reflected greatly in the social fabric of Indian society where people, no matter how poor, stick together and stand by each other. Another example is the way daughters are perceived in the Indian culture. Based on the myth of the goddess of abundance, Lakshmi, the parents in India treat their daughters with reverence and as carriers of wealth like the goddess Lakshmi. Another example of such an influence is the Hindu greeting Namaste, which is now a common greeting for all Indians and Indian brands (Rao, 88). Although it is a pure religious greeting, most Indians use it as a customary hallmark of their Indian origin. Even the Indian yoga instructors in other countries use the Hindu greeting as part of their ritual greeting in the yoga practice. Effect of the Religions upon Spiritual Beliefs within the Cultures The most important and direct effect of religion is usually on the spiritual beliefs of its people. As straightforward as that sounds, the influence of religion upon spiritual beliefs of the culture it penetrates into, is a rather interesting phenomenon. Islam affects the spirituality and the spiritual beliefs of its believers in various settings in various ways. The concept of Heaven and Hell, for instance, creates a spiritual balance in Muslims’ lives where they associate spirituality with Heaven and materialism with Hell. Another such effect is visible in the holy month of Ramadan, in which Muslims fast all month and celebrate in the end with the day of Eid-ul-Fitr (Daftary, pp. 51-69). The spirituality of fasting in this month is intense and useful in reinforcing the need to cut back on material needs like food and water to give space for spiritual cleansing to set in. Another interesting example of such an influence is the belief in the spirits and a world of spirits. Quran authenticates the existence of a parallel universe of spiritual beings and this idea finds itself very practical in the Somalian community where they treat spirits as fellow beings and perform rituals in order to beseech and appease these creatures (Pal, 48). The Indian culture, similarly, is greatly reflective of the spiritual beliefs of Hinduism. For instance, the belief in the Indian culture in bad omen or avshagun is a result of Hindu mythology’s injunctions about bad signs succeeded by wrong doings and mishaps. Similarly, the ritual of saath phere or seven rounds in a Hindu matrimony whereby bride and groom circle the fire seven times represents the Hindu belief in multiple lifetimes and that the bond of marriage surpasses the bounds of each life and transcends into next. In addition, many superstitions in Muslim and Hindu cultures find their roots in the mythologies, legends, and folklore of religious nature. One such example if the prohibition to cut nails after sunset in some Muslim cultures, although the rational explanation comes from the Sunnah or the habit of the last Prophet, it is still treated as a secular belief or a superstition. Conclusion One sees that although widely apart and heavily opposed, Islam and Hinduism have more in common than the fundamentalists of both the sides would like to think. They are also very different from each other in many ways. However, these differences are not that different; even the sharpest of the contrasts carry a tiny resemblance of the opposition within them. Thus, this comparative study shows that matters of religion need to be seen in a perspective different from the bi-polar, right/wrong one that is currently used to judge positions on religions. This study shows that no religion is completely distinct from another and therefore, instead of harboring antagonistic emotions for the other, both parties should strive to build a collateral, benign relationship whereby each one affirms the validity of the other and engages with it, both critically and constructively, to promote the well-being of the next. That is the only way one can hope for a peaceful, globalized, world. Works Cited Bowman, J. Comparative Religion: The Charles Strong Trust Lectures 1961-1970. Brill Archive, 1972. Daftary, Farhad. Intellectual Traditions in Islam. I. B. Tauris, 2000. Frazer, James George. The Golden Bough. Cosimo Inc., 2009. Graham, W. A. Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010. Gulati, M. N. Comparative Religious, and Philosophies: Anthropomorphism and Divinity. Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 2008. Lantiqua, D. M., Fasching, D. J., deChant, D. 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