Belief in the Paranormal - Report Example

Introduction According to McLean and Miller (2010), belief in paranormal is not comprehend well because it is considered the direct opposite of rational thinking. Numerous researchers have tried to understand this misunderstanding of paranormal belief through correlating paranormal belief with any underlying psychological traits (Van den Bulck & Custers, 2009). Example of factors utilised in these correlations include self actualisation, external locus of control, suggestibility, hypochondria and a putative reduction in death anxiety as examples. These numerous characterisation and association utilised by various researchers calls upon scrutiny of methods utilised in grouping individuals as ‘believers’ (McLean & Miller, 2010). The instruments the researchers utilise in collection of belief related information include the Magical Ideation Scale, the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, the Mystical Experiences Scale and Revised Paranormal Belief scale to name some. The models and frameworks are developed by numerous researchers and authors who have analysed the idea of beliefs and mystical analysis. Information on these numerous instruments are obtained from diverse topics, which are available in books, magazine articles, television shows and movies (Smith, Johnson & Hathaway, 2009). Some of the topics in which information is retrieved from include psychic abilities, unsupported quasi -, popular-sciences and proto-sciences, spiritualism and astrology effects. In addition, additional information has been introduced into some of these instruments with the aim of understanding multidimensional structure of belief. The questionnaires developed brings into consideration numerous favours that are pegged on what supplementary items should included into existing questionnaires to advance multidimensional structure of belief and whether the added items improves the quality of the existing factors. For example, the PBS-R has been amalgamated with different scales that demonstrate that more comprehensive measures are required in improving on paranormal belief (Gilbert, Krull & Mallone, 1990). Even though numerous supported as been accorded to the paranormal beliefs, validity of the scales utilised are in question. Some of questions include the items that should be included in the scale, differences in paranormal beliefs, the manner in which participants answer the questions in the instruments and contextual factors defining answering the questions (McLean & Miller, 2010). Moreover, anomalies are associated with the nature of options offered in the paranormal questionnaire. Participants are required to choose either whether an issue is right or wrong based on preset propositions or contention might occur if the participants hold quasi-beliefs that is differentiated by been informed on beliefs. According to Recanati (1997), quasi beliefs are defined as the semi-propositional representations that are assumed to be true before evaluation of the truth (Thalbourne, Dunbar & Delin, 1995). This is evident in the way a child responds to a quasi belief compared to the way an adult responds to the same item. In other circumstances, the idea of quasi belief might not evolve even if the individual has better knowledge regarding the topic or idea. The basis of this argument is premised on differentiating between quasi beliefs and informed beliefs. This can be understood better if two anomalous topics that are common in the paranormal belief questionnaires are the material existence of the Bigfoot and the concept of psychokinesis: this is the ability of influencing matter through thought alone. On the idea of psychokinesis, a participant might answer the question positively to an item on the psychokinesis legitimacy and other important related items since the information is expressed on the principle of ‘psychic power’. Through numerous information in which a participant can read and see on psychic powers in magazines and television shows to create the impression that it is true and by association is the basis of psychokinesis. Such a condition can suffice the idea of quasi belief as compared to an individual who has extensive knowledge in parapsychological information and understands that the legitimacy of psychokinetic effects are only possible in an environment that is based on controlled parapsychological research. These informed persons might also understand theoretical frameworks which might be utilised in justification of authentic psychokinetic effect. On the idea of Bigfoot, a participant requested to fill the questionnaire and has information regarding this mysterious create might base decision in answering the questionnaire based on television show or written literature or if the participant has been marinating a close relationship with believes of existence of Bigfoot. In addition, such participants response would be affirmative basing their decision on the idea and curiosity of such a create living with certain location (McLean & Miller, 2010). In the same way, asking the same participants whether there is a possibility of similar creates living and roaming in other parts of the world might result in a completely different answer. This means that the respondents do not have a clear understanding of what they profess. A strategy that can be employed in exploring whether paranormal belief questionnaire items brings into consideration the perception of quasi beliefs is development of questions that have set of questions that addresses the question. These set of questions can be termed as classes in that there is the first class and the second class (McLean & Miller, 2010). Quasi beliefs and informed beliefs fundamentals can be include in development of instrument with the aim of differentiating primary items with secondary items and associated with classes defined (Frederick, 2005). Primary items are those question sets that are found in common paranormal belief questionnaire while the secondary items include rewording the primary item removing anomalies with the aim of receiving answers based on contextual scenarios. Numerous instruments of measurements exist and each of these instruments has items that are aimed at elaborating on a paranormal issue. Some of these instruments include the 89-item labelled ‘A Belief Questionnaire’, the 7 open questions, The Tobacyk’s Paranormal Belief Scale. These three instruments would be utilised in collecting information that addresses the hypotheses questions. A Belief Questionnaire also referred to has an 89 item instrument that addresses items that are associated with mystical, paranormal and also other types of beliefs. Another instrument to be used is The Tobacyk’s Paranormal Belief Scale which has seven dimensions for measurement of belief, which are Traditional Religious Belief, Psi, Witchcraft, Superstition, Spiritualism, Extraordinary Life Forms, and Precognition. The Tobacyk’s Paranormal Belief Scale is an improvement of the 25-item Paranormal Belief Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). The third approach is the the 7 open questions, Significance of the Study The difference in perception in addressing the questionnaires and other instruments in which the participants have to fill is an important factor in numerous research based studies. Some participants might be affirmative to a question but the participant might be influence by anomalies and other factors associated with been informed (McLean & Miller, 2010). Regarding the paranormal belief, participants might have difficulties in answering quasi based beliefs and those informed based beliefs. To understand the position and understanding of the participants, utilisation of primary items and secondary items in a questionnaire would allow understanding better the views of the respondents (Gilbert, Tafarodi & Malone, 1993). Therefore, the significance of this study is to develop and administer a question set, which aims to determine whether the participants respond to the secondary items in the way they respondent to the primary items. The aim is to determine whether participants’ authentic measure of what might be referred a “belief” is also internally consistent with sets of proposition, which include its putative causes and anomalous topic. Statement of the problem In carrying out any research, it is important to analyse and determine the reasons in which the topic question should be addressed. Paranormal belief is common in the society whereby some people believe on a criterion or scenario based on informed accessed and also based on there uninformed position towards a topic (McLean & Miller, 2010). Regarding the paranormal, common quasi belief situations exist that can be solved through developing and formulating questionnaires that address both situations. These situations can be of participants who are informed and uninformed. To achieve the goal whether individual bases information on pre-informed condition, three types of questionnaires would be utilised in collecting the information and analysing the information with the aim of determining whether the participants address an issue based on which side of quasi position. This can be understood through understanding the platform of Bigfoot and psychokinesis as an example of quasi situation that can be understood through taking a completely different approach. Hypotheses/Research Questions/Design The aim of this research is to answer and determine the validity and relationship among paranormal related issues. Therefore, the hypotheses for this case study are: i. Is there a difference between the primary items from secondary items response from the respondents? ii. How might the presence of these apparent quasi-beliefs impact on current understanding of paranormal belief? Assumptions Assumptions can be defined as things, which researchers take for granted in a given study. This is based on the understanding that information on a given research is true. Even though this information is usually presumed to be true, it is important to illustrate and elaborate these facts. Some of the assumptions in this study include theory under investigation, the methodology, the instrument, the analysis, the participants in the study, the power to find significance and the results. These are the common assumptions that are based in numerous studies. These factors are further elaborate to associate the concepts with the study on paranormal beliefs and quasi beliefs (McLean & Miller, 2010). The important assumption that guides the entire research is the theoretical foundation assumption in that the framework accurately reflects on the studied phenomena. Therefore, the relationship between paranormal belief and the items studied plays a major role in understanding why some respondents choose some aspects and while others view an issue as ambiguous. This means the phenomenon in this study is well defined and accurate, and important variables are considered. Another important assumption that the researcher assumes is that the methodology utilised is appropriate to study the problem and address the purpose of the study. For example, utilisation of quantitative analyses is sometimes ineffective in answering why and how questions. The issue of methodology and instruments to be utilised in this case study has further been improved through utilisation of the three types of questionnaires. This also means the instruments proposed by the researcher to collect data addresses all variables in play and also the instrument addresses the reliability and validity in measuring the variables. Therefore, the research is sure of utilisation of three frameworks of questionnaire is effective in addressing the relationship between paranormal beliefs and quasi beliefs. Analysis of the data and modes employed also are some assumptions that the researcher has taken into consideration. For example, most of the information collected by the three instruments utilised in this study would utilise statistical procedure that bases its analyses on parametric factors e.g. ANOVAs and Pearson correlations with the assumption that the data is normally distributed. This assumption sometimes is false and it is imperative for the researcher to devise new measures to address such issues if they exist. Therefore, the assumption of parametric approach would be mitigated by utilisation of other statistical procedures such as non-parametric procedure e.g. Spearman Rho. In addition, the idea of data analysis is associated with participants. Some factors the researcher assumes is that the approach towards the participants include whether the participants represent the population and whether their participation is non-biased. Moreover, the researcher would assume that the results from the study are generalisable beyond the current study and therefore the results are relevant to the stakeholders and also being meaningful. This is because the foundation of paranormal belief and other associated factors play an important role in defining the way in which a person behaviour towards certain scenarios and conditions. Therefore, the perception of the researcher that the information could be generalised is important towards the outcome and motivation of the research. Limitations Limitations can be defined as those elements and factors in which the researcher cannot control. This means that limitations are associated with assumptions. Theoretical foundation is the major limitation to any research because some variables might be used in a manner that defines other variables that are not in that given study. If different variables are utilised rather than what was intended means that the theoretical foundation of the study might be flawed. For example in the current research, the variables are quasi belief and paranormal beliefs and these factors are interchangeable and inappropriate definition might result in a situation whereby the research is understood differently. Therefore, such information limits the accuracy of any results obtained. Hence, a research study is limited by theoretical foundation in understanding the variables and phenomena that a researcher is studying. An effective and efficient research study incorporates numerous factors in determining the relationship between the variables utilised and the theoretical background in which the research is based. Apart from the theoretical factor, the phenomenon is another limitation. The phenomenon is also another common limitation that is associated with numerous researches. This is because numerous theoretical constructs that are measured in the social sciences are hard to define. For example, analysing a subject from the perspective of religion moral from general moral can be viewed different and it might require utilisation of different measurement instruments. This also means that the approach in which paranormal factors are addressed brings into consideration its association with quasi beliefs. In addition, some factors associated with the research might be defined inappropriately resulting in a situation whereby anomalies occur. Therefore, a study can be limited to the definitions employed by the researcher and context of the research. An instrument is also another platform in which limitations can be associated with because of validity and reliability. An instrument can be defined as reliable if the same instrument is utilised in same construct would yield the same measurement. The three instruments utilised in this research should yield information that is reliable and valid (Gilbert, 1991). In addition, the instrument is associated with the methodology in which the study is limited to whether the methodology addresses the purpose and problem of the study. It means that the methodology utilised plays an important role in increasing or decreasing the ability to answer the research question. Utilisation of the three instruments improves the chances in which information collected is reliable and also valid. Moreover, the researcher now the benefits associated with each of the instrument and how it can maximise the output of the information collected. Another limitation is the statistical procedure in which it could yield statistical significance. Analysis in any research should be appropriate to address the research question and the analysis should have the power to detect significance relationships/differences if such factors exist in the population. The aim of the research is to study the relationship between the paranormal beliefs and quasi beliefs. Analysis of the relationship of these concepts results in addressing the hypotheses and utilising such information in understand social phenomena in which the study is based. The participants also are another limitation in that the participants would represent the population. In addition, the sampling strategy employed is pegged on the participant honesty. This is attributed to the fact that some participants might change their information because of their knowing that they are participating in a study (Evans, 2008). This limitation is common in numerous studies and research that utilises social factors and the society usually changes because of environmental matters such as obligations and pressures from community members. For example, some participants might share some information regarding the research and the outcome of the research may not be partial. The outcome of the results also plays a role in limitation of any research study. One of the conditions is whether generalisability can be achieved based on the results. In addition, whether the results obtained are useful to the important stakeholders. The outcome of this research is to determine whether there is a relationship between the paranormal beliefs and quasi beliefs. Moreover, other important factors regarding the question and the context of the questions would provide important information that might manipulate and inform the stakeholders towards understanding the phenomena in the research. Delimitations Delimitations can be defined as those characteristics that are utilised by a research in defining study boundaries. This means that the researcher makes conscious inclusionary and exclusionary decisions on the sample, the theoretical perspectives, the generalisability and the variables studied (Epstein, 1994). Inclusionary delimitations include the participants utilised in the research. These delimitations are evident in the research and understanding boundaries in which the research is based. The exclusionary delimitations aim to explore on the participants and the conditions in which the participants would not be allowed to participate. The exclusionary delimitation is that, only specified persons have defined in the inclusionary would be allowed to participate. The inclusionary delimitations variables are the variables that associates the participants with specific aspect of the research that is been studied (De Neys, 2006). The participants are students from Queensland University and only the students are required to fill the questionnaires. Based on the inclusionary delimitations, the exclusionary delimitations are those variables that aim to differentiate the participants from other prospective participants. The inclusionary delimitations associated to instrumentation define the measurement and instrumentation that has been designed for the proposed study (De Neys & Glumicic, 2008). On the other hand, exclusionary delimitations in instrumentations define those questions that are approved by appropriate panel that would be included in the survey instrument. In addition, refinement of the questions based on test-retest reliability analyses in determining the questions, which would be contained in the final document. In the same way, generalisability is another factor that is associated with delimitations. The information obtained would be utilised in the framework in which the hypotheses is developed and how applicable is the information. The information received would define the way the people within Australia perceive paranormal beliefs and quasi beliefs (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2005). The exclusionary delimitations in generalisability also address the issues associated with how the information cannot be generalised. For example, the information cannot be utilised outside of Australia because cultural and social factors determines the outcome of any research. References Aarnio, K., & Lindeman, M. (2005). Paranormal beliefs, education, and thinking styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1227–1236. De Neys, W. (2006). Dual processing in reasoning – Two systems but one reasoner. Psychological Science, 17, 428–433. De Neys, W., & Glumicic, T. (2008). Conflict monitoring in dual process theories of thinking. Cognition, 106, 1284–1299. Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49, 709–724. Evans, J. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social, cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278. Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive reflection and decision making. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 25–42. Gilbert, D. T. (1991). How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46, 107–119. Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Mallone, P. S. (1990). Believing the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of false information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 601–613. Gilbert, D. T., Tafarodi, R. W., & Malone, P. S. (1993). You can’t not believe everything you read. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 221–233. McLean, C., & Miller, N. (2010). Changes in critical thinking skills following a course on science and pseudoscience: A quasi-experimental study. Teaching of Psychology, 37(2), 85-90 Recabati, R. (1997). Can we believe what we do not understand? Mind & Language, 12(1), 84-100 Smith, C., Johnson, L., & Hathaway, W. (2009). Personality contributions to belief in paranormal phenomena. Individual Differences Research, 7(2), 85-96 Thalbourne, M., Dunbar, K., & Delin, P. (1995). An investigation into correlates of belief in the paranormal. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 89, 215-231 Tobacyk, J. (1988). A revised paranormal belief scale. (Unpublished manuscript, Louisiana Technology University, Ruston, LA). Van den Bulck, J., & Custers, K. (2009). Belief in complementary and alternative medicine is related to age and paranormal beliefs in adults. European Journal of Public Health, 20(2), 227-230 Read More

Moreover, anomalies are associated with the nature of options offered in the paranormal questionnaire. Participants are required to choose either whether an issue is right or wrong based on preset propositions or contention might occur if the participants hold quasi-beliefs that is differentiated by been informed on beliefs. According to Recanati (1997), quasi beliefs are defined as the semi-propositional representations that are assumed to be true before evaluation of the truth (Thalbourne, Dunbar & Delin, 1995).

This is evident in the way a child responds to a quasi belief compared to the way an adult responds to the same item. In other circumstances, the idea of quasi belief might not evolve even if the individual has better knowledge regarding the topic or idea. The basis of this argument is premised on differentiating between quasi beliefs and informed beliefs. This can be understood better if two anomalous topics that are common in the paranormal belief questionnaires are the material existence of the Bigfoot and the concept of psychokinesis: this is the ability of influencing matter through thought alone.

On the idea of psychokinesis, a participant might answer the question positively to an item on the psychokinesis legitimacy and other important related items since the information is expressed on the principle of ‘psychic power’. Through numerous information in which a participant can read and see on psychic powers in magazines and television shows to create the impression that it is true and by association is the basis of psychokinesis. Such a condition can suffice the idea of quasi belief as compared to an individual who has extensive knowledge in parapsychological information and understands that the legitimacy of psychokinetic effects are only possible in an environment that is based on controlled parapsychological research.

These informed persons might also understand theoretical frameworks which might be utilised in justification of authentic psychokinetic effect. On the idea of Bigfoot, a participant requested to fill the questionnaire and has information regarding this mysterious create might base decision in answering the questionnaire based on television show or written literature or if the participant has been marinating a close relationship with believes of existence of Bigfoot. In addition, such participants response would be affirmative basing their decision on the idea and curiosity of such a create living with certain location (McLean & Miller, 2010).

In the same way, asking the same participants whether there is a possibility of similar creates living and roaming in other parts of the world might result in a completely different answer. This means that the respondents do not have a clear understanding of what they profess. A strategy that can be employed in exploring whether paranormal belief questionnaire items brings into consideration the perception of quasi beliefs is development of questions that have set of questions that addresses the question.

These set of questions can be termed as classes in that there is the first class and the second class (McLean & Miller, 2010). Quasi beliefs and informed beliefs fundamentals can be include in development of instrument with the aim of differentiating primary items with secondary items and associated with classes defined (Frederick, 2005). Primary items are those question sets that are found in common paranormal belief questionnaire while the secondary items include rewording the primary item removing anomalies with the aim of receiving answers based on contextual scenarios.

Numerous instruments of measurements exist and each of these instruments has items that are aimed at elaborating on a paranormal issue. Some of these instruments include the 89-item labelled ‘A Belief Questionnaire’, the 7 open questions, The Tobacyk’s Paranormal Belief Scale. These three instruments would be utilised in collecting information that addresses the hypotheses questions.

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