Can Normative Development Exist Given That We All Experience Our Lives Differently - Coursework Example

Running Head: NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT Normative development Name Course Institution Date Normative development Introduction Normative development refers to the ideal or expected standard of human development in the reference to the physical, psychological and social aspects of the human life. Alternatively this concept accentuates on how human development ought to be. The normative theory seeks to predict what will happen under several theoretical constraints. According to the book, “A life span human development” by Sigelman and Rider, normative development is defined as a sequence of systematic changes and continuities that occur in an individual as from conception to death or from the womb to the tomb (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).Over the course of time a number of propositions and theories concerning normative development have been formulated. These propositions and theories seek to give descriptive analysis on the various aspects of normative development. Nevertheless, there exist controversies and discrepancies regarding the concept of normative development. There are also a number of schools of thought regarding the concept normative development and whether this concept can be defended or discussed rationally. This paper seeks to incisively and comprehensively discuss the concept of normative development in reference to particular theories and literatures. It will as depict a critique in reference to the various aspects that revolve around the concept of normative development. Moreover, this paper seeks to respond to whether normative development exists given the fact that the experience of each individual is different. The stand of this paper is that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual are unique. Different features in the human life include the skin color, the hair, eyes, and personal interests, cultural and environmental aspects. This paper also seeks to establish whether there exist stages or milestones that can be undeniably used to categorize the human. In order to give a comprehensive outlook concerning this issue this paper will examine the findings of a number of scientists and theorist. A critique of the normative concept in regard to development theories Scientists in the likes of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) believe that approximately six million years ago, astounding events took place in the forests of Africa. They claim that the ancient ape species left the trees and began to live life solely on the ground. Thereafter the apes evolved to become man with a sudden leap in brain size (Darwin, 2003). Theorists believe this to be the beginning of the emergence of language, culture and the various societal settings. This also marked the beginning of life, as we know it now and the study of human life span. Early Greek scholars tried to define human existence in stages by utilizing parts of the body to define areas of development that could be analyzed according to certain criteria. Over the course of time, growth and expansion experienced in the human world has prompted a number of scientists to evaluate their ideas of typical life span development. Charles Darwin is among the renowned scientist in this field as a result of his theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin dabbled into lifespan development through the evolution theory (Sigelman & Rider, 2008). Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson are among the many phenomenal psychologists who have come up with renowned theories on human development. Freud’s theory on child development also referred to as the psycho sexual theory depicts views that somewhat relate to the concept of normative development and the controversies that surround it. In his theory Freud ascertains that the personality of a person is established at the age of five. He points out that the experiences that someone has during their early stages in life greatly influence their development and behavior in the later stages of their lives. According to Freud ones behavioral patterns are developed in a series a of childhood stages which are characterized by pleasure seeking energies that are focused on particular erogenous areas. Freud attributes psychosexual energy also referred to as libido as the key driving force of behavior in the early stages of human development. In his theory Freud presents a number of psychosexual stages of human development, he claims that if these stages are successfully completed the resulting factor include a healthy behavioral pattern in the alleged person. However, when certain issues are not resolved in this stages fixation is bound to occur. Until these issues are resolved the alleged individual remains in this stage. For instance, if the individual is fixated in the oral stage of development they tend to be overly dependant on others, alternatively these individuals could seek oral stimulation through eating, drinking or smoking (Fiske, 1998). According to Freud the first stage of development is the oral stage. During the oral stage the main point of interaction is the mouth. At this stage infants derive pleasure from sucking. Freud believes that if fixation occurs during this stage the individual would experience particular issues of aggression and dependency. Fixation during this stage could also bring about nail biting, smoking, eating and drinking habits. The anal stage according to Freud is characterized by bowel and effort of bladder control by the infant. The major challenge during this stage involves toilet training, successful accomplishment during this stage brings about a sense of independence and productivity. It is worth noting that the accomplishment at this stage is highly dependant on the parents approach to toilet discipline. Negative toilet training can produce negative outcomes in the later stages of the individual’s life. For instance the individual could have a destructive behavioral pattern and become wasteful and messy. In the phallic stage the main focus is the genitals, children at this stage begin to discover their sexes. In the latent stage, the child’s libido is suppressed this energy is instead directed to social and intellectual pursuits. It is in this stage that an individual develops self confidence and communication skills. Fixation in this stage contributes to social disorders. According to Freud, the genital stage is the final stage of the psychosexual development, it is characterized by an inert urge of reproduction and creativity. Based on Sigmund’s Freud theory on psychosexual development, it is evident that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are inherently different. In reference to Freud’s theory there are several stages of development all stages are equally important. Similarly, all the stages have specific distinctive needs that ought to be met failure to this fixation is bound to occur. For instance during the anal stage the distinctive need is toilet training. The kind of toilet training that the child receives during this stage will determine the behavioral traits in future. Proper toilet training could cause a child to be productive and independent in future. However when toilet training is conducted in an uncouth manner the child will tend to lack self confidence, become overly dependant, fearful or even aggressive. Realistically, parents or guardians exercise different parenting tactics some could be overly harsh whereas others could be overly permissive. Based on these facts it is apparent that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are inherently different. Erik Erikson on the other hand articulated eight stages of social development in his theory commonly referred to as the psychosocial development theory. In his theory Erikson accentuates that there are eight stages through which a cognitively healthy individuals go through from infancy to adult hood. In each stage an individual experiences new challenges, the completion of each stage is based on the accomplishment of the subsequent stage. In a case whereby a stage is not successfully confronted certain problems are bound to reappear in future. In Erikson’s theory the challenge that confronts the first stage have to do with issues of trust versus mistrust. The infant at this stage depends on its parents or care givers to provide warmth, affection and security. If the infant is exposed to affection, security and warmth his or her view of the world will be that of trust. However, if the parents or caregivers fail to meet these needs a sense of mistrust will be the consequent factor. In the stages that follow challenges that confront the child revolve around autonomy versus shame and doubt. During these stages the child explores his surroundings, the parent and care givers provide a strong platform for security whereby the child can explore and assert their will. Encouragement and patience from parents enables the child to develop autonomy. However, when the parents or guardians are restrictive or abusive the child is bound to experience a sense of self doubt causing them to be somewhat reluctant when it comes to attempting new challenges (Erikson, 1959). According to Erikson the adolescent stage is confronted by issues of identity versus role confusion. In the course of this stage the adolescent is concerned with their identity and how they appear to others. Most adolescent experience a sense of identity based on their environment or upbringing. Conversely, if they fail to gain a sense of identity they are bound to experience role confusion. In the Young adult hood stage the experienced confrontations lies between intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is bound to be actualized when an individual has experiences of love and acceptance. Nevertheless, when an individual has experiences of rejection they are bound to isolate themselves form others (Stevens, 1983). Based on Erik Erikson’s theory on social development it is it apparent that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are essentially different. In regard to Erikson’s theory there are a number of social development stages in an individual’s life that are determined by the experiences that an individual has. For instance, during the young adult hood stage an individual is confronted by issues that revolve around intimacy and isolation .The experience that one has determines how they become. For example if an individual experiences love and acceptance they are then bound to develop intimate relationships however if an individual has recurrent experiences of rejection they are likely to isolate themselves from others. Erikson’s theory is limiting in that it is primarily based on his astute observations rather than experiential research. (Smith, 1993). Charlotte Buhler argues that basic development is characterized by intentionality, goal setting and actualization. According to Buhler a successful life involves the realization of an individual’s potential, honesty and hard work. Furthermore, the accomplishment of goals require monitoring and modification so at to accommodate biological and social circumstances. Theorists in the likes of Daniel Levinson further built up on Buhler’s work. Levinson and his Colleagues at Yale University worked on one of the most extensive studies of adult development. Levinson and his team conducted a longitudinal study on forty men between the ages of 35 to 45 with varying occupations. This study was geared towards establishing a common life pattern. The findings of this study concluded that every person has a life structure that evolves through a series of stable periods each lasting 5 to 10 years. Levinson and his team mainly focused on early adulthood stages which were referred to as pre adulthood and old age stages (Lerner, 2002). Critiques argue that Levinson’s study was comparatively small and his findings, even though it was grouped, did not represent a larger cross section of typical male adults from other cultures. Thus we are left to wonder whether there exists an underlying pattern for a person’s life. This further proves that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are essentially different. Given the fact we all come from different cultural, geographical and political backgrounds. Jean Piaget is regarded among the best scientists in the field of human life span development and developmental psychology. Piaget argues that cognitive development begins at infancy and that infants are able to understand and master the incomprehensible through the use of processes such as assimilation and accommodation. To a great extent this theory relates to the concept of basic model of development. In his theory, Peagat describes the period between birth to 2 years as a stage in which infants exercise and refine physical reflexes as they try to re create an accidentally pleasurable event this shows their significant interest in the local environment. According to Piaget this stage is referred to as sensorimotor stage. During this stage infants are able to internationalize behaviors and movements to gain an end. They are also able to assimilate old schemes or skills to determine differences between objects so as to gain their preferred result. Moreover, they begin to use and understand words and gestures in the course of communications. They could as well start to initiate play and understand the consequences of certain actions (Piaget & Inhelder, 2000). According to Piaget the Preoperational stage occurs between 2 years to approximately 7 years. In this stage, Piaget claims that the child has difficulties in making sense of the unknowns, in other words the child begins to view the world from a different view point. At this stage reverse thinking for the child is somewhat difficult since the child believes what he or she is told and believe it is real. Furthermore, in this stage the child is not able to comprehend unrelated facts that are presented to him. Concrete Operational stage occurs approximately between 7 years to 11 years. During this stage of development, Piaget argues that the child is able to interact more easily with their significant others and has a decrease in egocentrism. Children in this age bracket are able to perform more basic logistics, they also possess mental reversibility functions .In this stage children gradually develop dimensional understanding of the processess of change, they are also able to rationalize systematic elements in a series to formalized logic. The formal operational stage occurs when children are 11 years and beyond. At this stage an individual possess the ability of reasoning logically and systematically. Furthermore, an individual is able to deduce conclusions from given facts and utilize the information in the different aspects of life that require problem solving interventions (Lerner, 2002). Lev Vygotsky is well known for his research in the field of the Socio cultural context of human lifespan development. Compared to Piaget, Vygotsky’s works determined social and cultural impact of human development rather than the nature context. His ideals and theories deduced the fact that the human processes of development varies from the animal processes of development (Gardner, 1978). Vygotsky argues that differing cultures and societies promote different stages or aspects of development. He accentuates that training can enhance development in cognitive functioning and other abilities. Vygotsky claims language and thoughts develop simultaneously. He further illustrates that the streams of thought and language merged in early childhood can become intensely powerful. This merger of thought and language enables children to gain control over themselves and their environments. Moreover, it enables them to logically reason with words and to express their ideas in a meaningful way to other people (Ekstrand & Dunn, 1993). Over the course of time, many theories have been formulated in an attempt to explain and enhance our understanding on life span development. In addition, more and more scientific research studies have been directed in this field. The scientific methods employed to establish research findings allow observational data to be evaluated. Moreover, the methods used involve preliminary observations to result in theories that describe certain information. The use of sample research involves the collection of data from a group of individuals in the same stage of development in order to generalize over the larger population of the same age. Data collection over the years has provided us with invaluable knowledge, research designs are occur threefold namely, cross sectional, longitudinal and sequential designs. The cross sectional research design involves the observation of different ages at one point in time. The longitudinal design involves the observation of one age group over periods of time. Sequential designs combine cross sectional and longitudinal study of different groups on multiple occasions. However, some research studies have downfalls since they cannot provide substantial evidence or are difficult to test (Hobart, 1993). Theories on normative development that have been formulated on the basis of sample research studies can be termed as erratic since most traditional developmental models were mostly studied in the western white culture. This would lead to the thought that other cultures and ethnicities have not been studied sufficiently for the whole of the human race to be interpreted or understood to be machine-like with normal life span developmental stages. According to Doidge, we have an intense period of learning during childhood. In our early adulthood, we are as intensely engaged in learning and acquiring new skills and abilities. There fore, our psychological and mental development varies depending on the kind of skills or information acquired over the years. Psychologically, middle age is an appealing stage due to the fact that it can be a relatively placid period compared with what has come before. By the time an individual reaches seventies, they may not have systematically engaged the systems of their brains that regulate plasticity for fifty years. What individuals learn in their environment is inherently different in all cultures (Doidge, 2007). Furthermore there exist too many variables in ethnicity, culture, religion, physicality and climate and environment this suggests that a normative life span development does not exist in regard to psychology. Stages of cognitive development could be construed as normal nevertheless there is also need of identifying regions of human existence, rather than the accepted norm. It is worth noting that not all humans develop into geniuses and not all people can play piano or become chess champions. The environment in which we grow and live in is the key determinant to our development. The diversity in our planet allows for individuality and adaptability in the course of development. Therefore, normative development barely exists since most theories are yet to be substantiated. In reference to biological development there exist some stages of development however in reference psychological and mental development there is no common ground for development since cultural, environmental and learning influences the rate of development (Hobart, 1993). Conclusion Normative development refers to the ideal or expected standard of human development in the reference to the physical, psychological and social aspects of the human life. The stand of this paper was that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual are unique. Moreover, several theories on normative development are yet to be substantiated. The environment in which we grow and live in greatly determines the nature and rate of our development. Most research studies geared towards verifying normative development have downfalls since they cannot provide substantial evidence or are difficult to test. It is therefore apparent that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are essentially different (Hobart, 1993). References Darwin, C. (2003). Evolution by Natural Selection. New York: Textbook Publishers Doidge, N. (2007). The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science. New York: Penguin Books. Ekstrand, B. & Dunn, W. (1993). Psychology: A concise Introduction. New York: Holt Publishers. Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: International Universities Press. Fiske, S. (1998). The handbook of social psychology, Volume 2. New York: Oxford University Press. Gardner, H. (1978). Developmental psychology: an introduction. California: the University of California Press. Hobart, M. (1993). An Anthropological critique of development: the growth of ignorance. New York: Routledge Publishers. Lerner, R. (2002). Concepts and theories of human development. New York: Routledge Publishers. Piaget, J & Inhelder, B. (2000). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books Publishers. Sigelman, C & Rider, E. (2008). Life-Span Human Development. New York: Cengage Learning. Stevens, R. (1983). Erik Erikson: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's Publishers. . .( In Smith R.E. Psychology 1993 p147). .( Bourne, Ekstrand and Dunn. Psychology. A concvise Introduction. P272-273.) ( Doidge. Norman. M.D. 2007. The Brain That Changes Itself. Pp49-50.) Read More

Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson are among the many phenomenal psychologists who have come up with renowned theories on human development. Freud’s theory on child development also referred to as the psycho sexual theory depicts views that somewhat relate to the concept of normative development and the controversies that surround it. In his theory Freud ascertains that the personality of a person is established at the age of five. He points out that the experiences that someone has during their early stages in life greatly influence their development and behavior in the later stages of their lives.

According to Freud ones behavioral patterns are developed in a series a of childhood stages which are characterized by pleasure seeking energies that are focused on particular erogenous areas. Freud attributes psychosexual energy also referred to as libido as the key driving force of behavior in the early stages of human development. In his theory Freud presents a number of psychosexual stages of human development, he claims that if these stages are successfully completed the resulting factor include a healthy behavioral pattern in the alleged person.

However, when certain issues are not resolved in this stages fixation is bound to occur. Until these issues are resolved the alleged individual remains in this stage. For instance, if the individual is fixated in the oral stage of development they tend to be overly dependant on others, alternatively these individuals could seek oral stimulation through eating, drinking or smoking (Fiske, 1998). According to Freud the first stage of development is the oral stage. During the oral stage the main point of interaction is the mouth.

At this stage infants derive pleasure from sucking. Freud believes that if fixation occurs during this stage the individual would experience particular issues of aggression and dependency. Fixation during this stage could also bring about nail biting, smoking, eating and drinking habits. The anal stage according to Freud is characterized by bowel and effort of bladder control by the infant. The major challenge during this stage involves toilet training, successful accomplishment during this stage brings about a sense of independence and productivity.

It is worth noting that the accomplishment at this stage is highly dependant on the parents approach to toilet discipline. Negative toilet training can produce negative outcomes in the later stages of the individual’s life. For instance the individual could have a destructive behavioral pattern and become wasteful and messy. In the phallic stage the main focus is the genitals, children at this stage begin to discover their sexes. In the latent stage, the child’s libido is suppressed this energy is instead directed to social and intellectual pursuits.

It is in this stage that an individual develops self confidence and communication skills. Fixation in this stage contributes to social disorders. According to Freud, the genital stage is the final stage of the psychosexual development, it is characterized by an inert urge of reproduction and creativity. Based on Sigmund’s Freud theory on psychosexual development, it is evident that normative development does not exist since the experiences of each individual during the stages of development are inherently different.

In reference to Freud’s theory there are several stages of development all stages are equally important. Similarly, all the stages have specific distinctive needs that ought to be met failure to this fixation is bound to occur. For instance during the anal stage the distinctive need is toilet training. The kind of toilet training that the child receives during this stage will determine the behavioral traits in future. Proper toilet training could cause a child to be productive and independent in future.

However when toilet training is conducted in an uncouth manner the child will tend to lack self confidence, become overly dependant, fearful or even aggressive.

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