The Influence of Cognitive Stresses on Pilots in the Cockpit - Essay Example

The Influence of Cognitive Stresses on Pilot’s Decision Making in the Cockpit Student’s name Institution The Mental Workload Model The mental workload model is composed of the correlation between motivated capability of the pilot and the perceived task demand. The mental workload model may be defined as scenarios, or schemas of dynamic systems which incorporate the comprehension of components of the system and how they interact in relation to changes in time (Wright, 2004). The capacity of the pilot and perceived task activities are influenced by changing conditions. Different pilots will react differently in situations that are similar due to their differential levels of mental workload. Each scenario usually involves a range of task activities which the pilot is supposed to perform and react to. As aforementioned, pilots usually have different attributes for instance some are more risk averse and vice versa. The decisions taken by pilots will thus be different resulting in differences in task demand. Conversely, motivated capability is the mental supply of resources needed in the scenarios facing the pilot. The motivated capability of the pilot is also influenced to a great deal by the particular attributes of the individual pilot. External influences also play a great role in the varied nature of motivated piloting capacity. In other words, perceived task motivated capacities, and perceived task demand may be at odds with pilot attributes and external influences. Mental workload is normally analyzed by measurement of the variation between motivated capacities alternatively referred to as the workload margin versus the task demand (Telfer, 2007). The mental workload exhibited usually varies inversely in proportion with the margin. In a similar situation the pilot may have different margins according to the motivated situation. As such it is erroneous to consider only tasks as the indicator of workload in the description of mental workload of pilots in the cockpit. For instance a complex task may be determined to be easy by a pilot in the instance of his motivated capability being higher and vice versa. An analysis of macro accident data may bring to light scenarios deemed high risk for the pilot. Conversely, the real causes of the accidents cannot be clearly deciphered or drawn without going into a deeper analysis of the behavior and reactions of the pilots during flying. This part will discuss the mental workload model, task demand, and capability. Capability and task demand do not remain constant since the pilots’ attributes and external influences underlie these aspects. Furthermore there is variation among pilots with regard to the process of transformation from workload margin to mental workload. Even in instances in which pilots are exposed to similar amounts of mental workload for instance similar working hours, there will be differences in reaction due to differential sensitivity to the workload. The key to enhancing aviation safety and reducing pilot cognitive impairments lies in employment of innovative strategies and technologies to enhance motivated capabilities and reduction of task demand. Task Demand In order to have an effective analysis of pilot decisions in the cockpit under mental workload conditions, it is important to define task demand task activity. Irrespective of individual attributes in situational awareness or other flying skills, task activity is an aspect which is event oriented and task centered in order to make a determination of the range of concurrent tasks which ought to be accomplished in order to achieve certain goals which are set by the pilot in a particular scenario. The task activity is usually a consequence of unexpected and expected events in the cockpit and outside it. Taking into account external factor influence and objectives to be achieved by the pilot, each happening results into the creation of particular task activities to be performed. Conversely task demand is different since it is not human centered but is rather defined according to the total amount of tasks which are performed by the pilot in a given time period. The time taken to perform a task is a critical aspect in task demand analysis. As opposed to event oriented task performances, task demand is to a great extent influenced by situational awareness and personality attributes of the pilot. Different pilots who have varied personality attributes will make different decisions and will be exposed to varied different task demands even if the activity is the same. Task activity refers to the tasks which the pilot is expected to undertake proficiently while task demand refers to the tasks that pilots decide to perform during a certain set time. For instance, in approaching an airport on a stormy day the pilot is likely to slow down more than usual in the approach for the landing. The pilot will check his instruments and look to see if they have enough fuel in case of contingency. The inexperienced pilot might not perform contingency tests or avoid deceleration. The experienced pilot will however undertake every necessary contingency plans and precautions on final approach. Task activities which have not as yet come to the notice of the pilots do not result in task demand though they enhance the probability that unexpected happenings might result in greater complications. (Payne et al. 2008) asserted that unexpected and unusual happenings enhance the probability of accidents. If pilots could precisely make predictions of potential scenarios before they happen, tasks may be better allocated and task activity in given time could be sustained at levels that are low enough yet practical. However, unexpected situations usually take place very fast. Even as the total task activity is maintained, the steep increase in task activity per unit of time may result in pilots losing their capacities for the maintenance of safety in decision making. Just as the instance of the pilot approaching an airport on a stormy day, pilots that do not take into account contingencies will have lesser task demand. On the other hand if the plane is turned away without enough fuel, the pilot faces enhanced task demand making the neglect of contingencies costly. This suggests that the amount of time allowed for the execution of tasks is significant in the determination of task demand and hence will be crucial in pilot mental resource allocation. Task demand is essentially classified into two categories; primary and secondary tasks. Primary tasks are tasks which are undertaken by pilots towards the sustenance of safety. The sustenance of safety is further categorized into flight control and the prevention of potential risky situations. Factors influencing flying tasks are such as weather, condition of the plane, distraction as well as external environmental issues which impact the flying task complexity and make it harder for the pilot to attain their objectives. Several studies undertaken have sought o analyze accident prone situations. For instance weather accidents usually occur during landing and takeoff since such situations put an extraordinary mental workload on the pilot if the weather conditions are not conducive (Baumeister et al. 2008). In such an instance, better psychological training of pilots and air traffic controllers would enhance safety by giving pilots more confidence in landing and taking off in stormy situations. On the other hand better air traffic controllers may make pilots to take more risks thus enhancing task activities (Baumeister et al. 2008). Consequently, the pilot’s task demand may go over their limit resulting in risky accident situations. Furthermore the complexity of flying is complicated by the increasing traffic in the skies. It has been established that pilots will allocate more mental resources to the maintenance of safety in situations that are complex such as landing and taking off in bad weather (Edwards, 2004). Studies have found that the more information is processes by the pilot, and the increased decision making results in the pilots being exposed to greater risks as the task demands increase. Secondary tasks are all non flying activities such as in-flight distraction, environmental distractions and acquisition of information. The performance of secondary tasks may result in distractions that ultimately results into allocation of more mental resources to these tasks at the expense of the primary tasks. Among the issues studied include in flight distractions particularly communication with passengers and air traffic control. Several studies have come up with the hypothesis that the use of in-flight instruments increase the pilot’s task activities thus decreasing his attendance to the primary tasks and hence capacity to react appropriately to contingencies (White, 2006). External influences such as other planes taking off and landing also critically affect the performance of the pilot. On the other hand information offered to the pilot by flight engineers, and air traffic control may be distracting and increase task activities. This is true even in instances in which such information may be useful in assisting the pilot plan for the allocation of mental resources and evades the dangers arising from uncertainty. Research done of factor analysis only has only been concerned with pilot mental overload situations. A further analysis of these factors and relevant situations would be helpful in getting a comprehension of how pilots encounter flight scenarios. However, the most critical aspects in flight task activity takes into account the behavior of pilots in controlling the airplane. Indeed it has been established that different behaviors result into varied task activities therefore accident risk outcome and task demand. Male and young pilots have been found to go against regulations and are more aggressive (Wright, 2004). However it has also been found that aspects of age and gender do not have a profound impact or influence on flying behavior. Conversely, such aspects are a reflection of innate psychological factors for instance personality attributes that directly impact goal setting or situational awareness. Wright (2004) argued that individuality attributes of young pilots which include complacence, sensation seeking and impatience may underlie risky flying behavior. Pilots that engage in the pursuit of excitement or are impulsive have a greater acceptance of unsafe flying and will as such be more prone to risky behavior thus creating extra task activities. This would imply task activity and would therefore entail that task demand would be differentiate depending on pilot attributes and personality. Motivated Capability Motivated capability refers to the maximum amount of task units which a pilot can undertake correctly in a given time. Telfer, (2007) in the law of cognitive capability argued that accident probability is increased by capability impairment. The main influencers of capability of the pilot are psychological and physical conditions. The physical condition of the pilot is the fundamental capability normally referred to as capacity. It is impossible for pilots to enhance their capacity while flying since capacity restricts the mental resources that can be drawn upon by the pilot. In an analysis of physical conditions, the aspect of age is a great factor affecting capacity in the execution of simultaneous activities (Payne et al. 2008). In instances of the degradation of physical attributes such as reaction time in urgent scenarios, useful field of view and consciousness, the aged pilots are usually lesser prepared in terms of flight reaction and also have lesser cognitive capacity. The education in capacity in elderly pilots makes them less proficient in the identification of potential accident risk. An important aspect which is of great influence on pilot capacity is the psychological condition and how this affects response to task demand. The psychological condition of the pilot may be deemed to be an adjustment aspect used in the determination of the amount of mental resources that can be drawn upon in flying in a given capacity. With respect to psychological conditions, the subjectivity of the pilot still remains important in the flying situations. A pilot who feels more in control and self confident, will find it easier to allocate mental resources and to sustain their capacities at the required levels. Flying in conditions of a disconnect between expectations and the reality of flying for instance in bad weather conditions makes the pilot stressed and depressed. (Baumeister et al. 2008) asserted that pilots who are depressed or stressed during the flight have been shown to have reduced flying proficiency. Baumeister et al. (2008) in citing laws of learning and rare events asserted that the rate of mistakes and exposure to risky situations usually decrease in direct proportion to flying exposure and experience. The accumulation of positive experiences and more training make it easier for pilots to control and predict flying probabilities. Additionally, the faster access to information on the weather, and routes to be followed by air traffic control is helpful in getting the pilots to be more psychologically prepared for uncertainties of flying and this enhances confidence and flying proficiency. The accident chain perspective asserts that the greatest aspect influencing capability usually happens prior to the flying stage. On the other hand Edwards, (2004) argued that task demand which is for the most part influenced by influencers in the flying stage, which combine with psychological conditions and thus have a greater influence on capability levels. For instance a pilot will be more cautious when flying into a snowy airport. The correlation between capability and task demand ought to be clarified in order to get a clear understanding of mental workload. Motivated capability has not been as much studies as compared to research on task demand. In the study and analysis of pilot capability, it is important that the concept of mental capacity also takes into account measures of psychological adjustment on pilot proficiency as a result of mental workload. The mental capacity is a determinant of the upper limit of the capability of the pilot. Pilots may attempt to make optimal us of their flying capacities through making adjustments to psychological aspects in order to enhance navigation and control during flying. Different pilots will have varied psychological and physical attributes which will differentiate the interaction between capability and capacity in instances in which the capacity is constant (White, 2006). Furthermore, just like task demand, motivated capability as a system is dynamic and as such is impacted by unique attributes of the pilot such as motivation in flight, information acquisition and experience. For instance taking into consideration age, for the most part young pilots will be in better physical shape thus they tend to have greater capacity in flying. On the other hand, inexperience makes them unable to make optimum use of the capacity. However, capacity cannot be simply explained by such simple measurements such as age or gender and as such more study is required. Optimum Mental Workload Based on the correlation between task demand and capability, pilots are exposed to the effects of mental workload and are called upon to make the appropriate reactions in dangerous scenarios. Plane maneuvering is a portrayal of the unequivocal mental processes which underlie the mental workload perceived. The risk of mental overload has been studied and discussed extensively. On the other hand, the presence of mental workload does not necessarily impact flying proficiency and safety in a negative way. Optimum mental workload is a concept that is of great significance nevertheless. Pilots try to sustain optimal conditions during flight such as optimal mental workload, speed and stress (Wright, 2004). In instances of the pilot being incapable of optimizing their mental workload, measures to correct this are employed. This will take the form of motivated capability and task demand adjustment according to the mental workload model. Compensation strategies may be employed at the time of the mental workload exceeding the optimal levels. For example, several studies on task demand have shown that pilots usually try to keep to a minimum secondary task such as communication with the cabin while the plane is in descent or ascent. An adjustment to the flying behavior is another way through which a pilot may compensate for insufficient mental resources. For instance a pilot may assign the co-pilot the duty of talking to the cabin in order to enable him decrease task demand and reallocate mental resources. On the other hand, adjustment of flight speed is another way through which mental workload may be managed. Telfer, (2007) asserts that pilots will make adjustments to cruising speed according to their preferred optimal velocity. In general pilots can decrease task demand through either engaging auto pilot or reducing their cruising speed in the instance of optimal conditions being exceeded. In some other instances pilots may increase their cruise speed in order to shut out external influences on workload. In the instance of psychological adjustment, the pilot could allocate more resources to flying if they determine that their proficiency has deteriorated (Payne et al. 2008). Conversely, in instances of a pilot’s mental workload being lower than optimal, boredom and fatigue may set in (Baumeister et al. 2008). Passive fatigue and boredom increase errors and lapses and also reaction time. Pilots, who fly in conditions of low mental workload, have their capacities reduced and furthermore they tend to become used to and therefore insensitive to the drop in capability. Such scenarios would make it hazardous for the plane if there were to be an unexpected increase in task demand. In order to avoid the hazards that result from low mental workload, it is critical that the pilot ensures a set level of mental workload is maintained through actions such as keeping up a conversation with the flight engineer and the copilot in order to maintain alertness (Edwards, 2004). The making of the decisions and taking action towards the optimization of mental workload is an important and critical aspect in flying. Nevertheless, pilots will in some instance fail to make accurate estimations of their mental workload and as such may underestimate potential risks. References Wright, P.L. (2004). The harassed decision maker: Time pressures, distractions, and the use of evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59 (3), 555-561. Payne, J.W., Bettman, J.R. & Johnston, E.J. (2008). Adaptive strategy selection in decision making. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, memory and cognition 14 (3), 534-552. Edwards, W. (2004). The theory of decision-making. Psychological Bulletin, 51 (4), 380-417. White, K. et al. (2006). Causal attributions, perceived control, and psychological adjustment: A study of chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36 (1), 75-99. Baumeister, R. et al. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (5), 1252-1265 Telfer, R. (2007). Pilot judgement training: The Australian study. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Aviation Psychology. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, Department of Aviation. Read More

The time taken to perform a task is a critical aspect in task demand analysis. As opposed to event oriented task performances, task demand is to a great extent influenced by situational awareness and personality attributes of the pilot. Different pilots who have varied personality attributes will make different decisions and will be exposed to varied different task demands even if the activity is the same. Task activity refers to the tasks which the pilot is expected to undertake proficiently while task demand refers to the tasks that pilots decide to perform during a certain set time.

For instance, in approaching an airport on a stormy day the pilot is likely to slow down more than usual in the approach for the landing. The pilot will check his instruments and look to see if they have enough fuel in case of contingency. The inexperienced pilot might not perform contingency tests or avoid deceleration. The experienced pilot will however undertake every necessary contingency plans and precautions on final approach. Task activities which have not as yet come to the notice of the pilots do not result in task demand though they enhance the probability that unexpected happenings might result in greater complications.

(Payne et al. 2008) asserted that unexpected and unusual happenings enhance the probability of accidents. If pilots could precisely make predictions of potential scenarios before they happen, tasks may be better allocated and task activity in given time could be sustained at levels that are low enough yet practical. However, unexpected situations usually take place very fast. Even as the total task activity is maintained, the steep increase in task activity per unit of time may result in pilots losing their capacities for the maintenance of safety in decision making.

Just as the instance of the pilot approaching an airport on a stormy day, pilots that do not take into account contingencies will have lesser task demand. On the other hand if the plane is turned away without enough fuel, the pilot faces enhanced task demand making the neglect of contingencies costly. This suggests that the amount of time allowed for the execution of tasks is significant in the determination of task demand and hence will be crucial in pilot mental resource allocation. Task demand is essentially classified into two categories; primary and secondary tasks.

Primary tasks are tasks which are undertaken by pilots towards the sustenance of safety. The sustenance of safety is further categorized into flight control and the prevention of potential risky situations. Factors influencing flying tasks are such as weather, condition of the plane, distraction as well as external environmental issues which impact the flying task complexity and make it harder for the pilot to attain their objectives. Several studies undertaken have sought o analyze accident prone situations.

For instance weather accidents usually occur during landing and takeoff since such situations put an extraordinary mental workload on the pilot if the weather conditions are not conducive (Baumeister et al. 2008). In such an instance, better psychological training of pilots and air traffic controllers would enhance safety by giving pilots more confidence in landing and taking off in stormy situations. On the other hand better air traffic controllers may make pilots to take more risks thus enhancing task activities (Baumeister et al. 2008). Consequently, the pilot’s task demand may go over their limit resulting in risky accident situations.

Furthermore the complexity of flying is complicated by the increasing traffic in the skies. It has been established that pilots will allocate more mental resources to the maintenance of safety in situations that are complex such as landing and taking off in bad weather (Edwards, 2004). Studies have found that the more information is processes by the pilot, and the increased decision making results in the pilots being exposed to greater risks as the task demands increase.

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