Giving Psychology Away to the Public - Case Study Example

Critical Issues in Psychology: Giving Psychology Away to the Public Name Institution Date Critical Issues in Psychology: Giving Psychology Away to the Public Introduction George A. Miller in his presidential address (1969) accentuated the need to give psychology away if human welfare was to be improved. To this end, Miller emphasized the need for psychologists to intensify their effort in educating the public through research and publication of their findings. He envisioned a psychological revolution that would change society if people could be made to change the way they conceived themselves. Nonetheless, it took twenty years for this positive revolution to be embraced by both the public and media. The positive psychology movement was thereafter initiated by Martin Seligman with the objective of fostering human strengths and positive emotions. He shared the same view with Miller that there was need to find scientific answers to human concerns, such as how to achieve true happiness and how to live healthier and more meaningful lives (Zimbardo, 2004). Positive psychology essentially involves psychological interventions aimed at transforming the lives of people and assisting them to overcome negative past experiences. The objective of this study is to provide a critical analysis of the significance of psychology in enhancing the quality of human life. The study seeks to provide evidence that demonstrates why and how psychology contributes to human welfare, and provides an analysis of the challenges that face effective practice of psychological intervention. The primary objective of this study is to provide answers to the critical questions that psychologists ask themselves: Whether it is possible to demonstrate that indeed the research psychologists undertake professional practice and theories about the human mind and behavior with the aim of improving the quality of human life in measurable ways. They also ask themselves whether the knowledge and principles advanced by psychologists is applicable in real life situations such as improvement of health, welfare and organizational efficiency. Giving Psychology away: Application of psychology Sokol and Car (2006) argue that giving away psychology basically refers to application of psychological theories and principles in resolving real life problems and challenges that face society. Society is consistently being transformed by some times unobserved appliance of psychological principles. Common areas that psychological theory and principles have influenced include: mental health, education, business management, law, ergonomics and product design (Kazdin, 2009). Giving away psychology in practical real life situations has necessitated psychologists to categories psychology into several dimensions or sub ranches that include: clinical psychology, organizational and industrial psychology, counseling psychology, occupational health psychology, forensic psychology, school psychology, community psychology, sports psychology, and engineering psychology (Schmitt, 2007). Vasquez (2012) points out that it is imperative that psychologists effectively communicate their role in responding to needs of the society. They have a responsibility to find solutions to the psychological and social challenges prevalent in modern society. Psychological research findings have profoundly transformed society by influencing the way people think, their behavior, values, and attitudes. In analyzing how and why psychology should be given away to the public, this study refers to key areas where psychotically intervention has made significant contribution. They include: Clinical/Psychological therapy, psychological assessment, child development, parenting, criminal justice, Education, environment, sports and health (Marks et al., 2005). Clinical/Psychological Therapy Smith (1990) Giving away psychology in clinical or psychotherapy context involves development of formal relationships between practitioners and clients. Clients may include individuals, families, couples, or small groups. The objective of this relationship is to establish therapeutic alliances and explore psychological problems with the intention of promoting positive thinking and behavior (DeLeon, 2010). According to Roscoe (1997), psychological therapy has effectively been used by psychological practitioners to relieve patients with mental illness. Systematic desensitization, cognitive behavior modification, and therapies of exposure have been used effectively in treatment of anxiety disorders, phobias and panic attacks. Practitioners also reveal that clinical depression is better treated by a combination of medication and psychotherapy. Essentially, what was previously referred to as “madness” has been demystified, it is now considered to be a behavioral or emotional disorder that can be rectified. Clinical theorists and practitioners have gone further to develop a wide range of treatments for other medical problems such as rehabilitation from drugs and physical disabilities thereby significantly improving social welfare and quality of life (Brehm, 2008). Psychological Assessment A significant achievement of psychological research is the development of an objective and quantifiable framework for assessment of human abilities, talents, strengths and weaknesses. Objective and systematic psychology procedures are now used by employers, teachers and clinicians to carry out authentic, quantifiable and reliable tests (Sokol & Car, 2006). Modern psychology testing procedures include assessments of personality, intelligence, personality and pathology. Career advising g and guidance counseling are typically measures of vocational interest (Goodheart, 2010). Child Development Previously there was considerable emphasis on corporal punishment for errors that happened in child rearing and schools. This has been gradually replaced by positive reinforcement to enhance positive responses from children when they are corrected (Straus & Kantor, 1994). To this end, focus in the upbringing of children has shifted from punishment for the undesirable person to punishment for undesirable behavior. Kazdin (2009) says that previously children were viewed as small adults or property, and later on as property that has increased in value. Development psychologists have helped to reverse this perception. Children are now considered to be persons with legal rights and self-determination, and should therefore be regarded as individuals worthy of their personal freedom (Sokol & Car, 2006) Parenting Psychologists recommend the authoritative parental style in child upbringing, as it creates a more effective bond between the child and parent. Nonetheless, children should have secure attachments with their parents or care givers. Parents that are authoritative but caring make appropriate demands on their children, while demonstrating concern and responsibility for their needs, freedom and autonomy (Karasek, 1979). Criminal Justice According to Miller (2010) social and cognitive psychologists have demonstrated that testimonies of eye-witnesses in criminal investigations can be very unreliable. As revealed in their research, recalling of criminal activity can be biased due to external influences during police line-ups and interrogations. Research conducted by Gary Wells has received recognition from the U.S. Attorney General’s office by being incorporated in development of a framework for collecting accurate eyewitness identification (Bandura, 1986). Education School psychology involves the application of clinical and educational psychology principles in treatment of learning and behavioral problems among students. School psychologists are specialists in learning theories, adolescent and child development, therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment, child and adolescent psychopathology, special education, and the legal and ethical code of the profession. Florencel (1980) notes that the role of school psychologists is to enhance efficiency and effectiveness in education institutions. Their work involves carrying out psychological assessments, providing brief interventions, and assisting in developing prevention programs. They also conduct assessments on the processes of child development in schools and at home. They work in liaison with parents, teachers and the personnel in schools to get information on behavior, learning, emotional and social problems. Bray (2010) points out that quite often they conduct training sessions on learning strategies, parenting skills and other issues related to mental health of children. They also provide counseling services to individuals, groups and families of students they are involved with. School psychologists also play a significant role in school and district intervention teams; they may often be required to supervise school psychology students, while guiding school personnel and teachers in professional development on issues such as achievement tests and intervention plans (Bandura, 1986). Sports Sports psychology involves the mental and psychological factors that influence performance in sports, exercise and other physical activity. The objective of sports psychology is to enhance team and individual performance. The distinction between a coach and sports psychologist is that while a coach focuses on the end result, sports psychologist focus on the thought process that determines the end result. Sports psychologists focus on the mental preparedness of the players, while a coach may be more interested in the physical preparedness of the players (Reisner, 2005). Health Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a new discipline that developed from the convergence of health psychology, occupational health and industrial and organizational psychology. The discipline focuses on identification of psychosocial attributes of the work place that cause health related problems in employees. These problems include physical health, such as cardio-vascular disease or mental health, such as depression. The primary objective of OHP is to develop and implement interventions that can minimize or prevent work-related health problems. OHP research in the work place may also involve factors such as unemployment, violence, employee downsizing, and safety (Koocher 2007). Environment Environmental psychology refers to the psychology of humans when interacting with the environment. The environment in this context includes homes, nature, and workplace. Temperature levels, noise and overpopulation or crowding are common environmental aspects that environmental psychologists often address. Meister (1999) argues that the objective of psychologists in studying human interaction with the environment is to evaluate the significance of environment to human welfare, and to determine the best way the environment can suit and meet the needs of people. The driving aspects of the study of environmental psychology include: perception, cognitive, learning, and social psychology (Meister, 1999). Why psychology should be given away/ Importance of psychology According to Bosma et al. (1997), the contribution that psychologists have made in changing human thinking and enriching the human condition is apparent. The scientific approach employed by psychologists has led to better comprehension and understanding of human behavior. This knowledge has helped to shape human society especially where it has been used to develop social, political and economic policies that directly affect society. Many psychologists have a done comprehensive research and advanced innovations that have improved quality of education through increased awareness of psychological principles of learning, attention, memory, and diversity. The contribution of psychological research in factors that affect human health has led to a wide range of therapeutic interventions that have significantly minimized human suffering (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Research by psychologists on visual perception has helped to improve traffic safety. It has now known that by changing the red color on emergency trucks to lime-green can help reduce accidents since the greenish hue is perceived better in dim light. Enhancing safety levels by employing the behavior-based safety approach has helped to identify dangerous behaviors that can be changed (Bandura, 1977). The approach also highlights change interventions and provides a framework for evaluating the response of workers in avoiding potentially risky behavior. Psychologists jack Loomis and Roberta Klatsky have played a significant role in developing navigational aids that enable movement of visually impaired and blind people. They have been able to successfully employ the principles of spatial cognition and auditory perception to direct movement. This new technology is currently being developed and has been financed by the National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research (Leichsenring & Leibing, 2003). Challenges of giving psychology away The challenges of applying psychology especially in the 21st century are attributed to several factors that include: drastic developments in science and medicines, a remarkable revolution in technology especially in electronic media, and increased distress on family. There has been a significant increase in the demand for psychologists to use electronic forms of communication (Telepsychology) in delivering services and knowledge. Questions have also been raised on the ethical obligation of psychologists to society, individuals and groups that need their services (Moyle, 1998). Modern innovations in communication appliances, storage devices for data, sounds and images, and a variety of communication devices have changed the way people interact and communicate. The expectation is that psychologists will have to deliver services in communication modes that are suitable for their clients. Essentially what this implies is that psychologists will have to deliver their services from a distance, which raises ethical questions about the use of telepsychology. According to Bandura (1977), ethical conduct in electronic delivery of service raises critical concerns regarding contracts with clients, competence in delivery of service, confidentiality of client information, and regulation or control of telepsychology practice. According to Levant (2006), psychologists face the dilemma of developing effective and reliable ways of signing contacts and agreements with clients through electronic media. The revolution in communication media also raises concerns of what competencies psychologists musty develop to be able to effectively and efficiently deliver services to clients who are remote. Psychological practice entails adherence to stringent confidentiality especially where client information is concerned, the question is how client confidentiality can be achieved in telepsychology. Nonetheless, psychologists have to establish ways and means of regulating and controlling the practice. Marks et al. (2005), observe that contractual issues in telepyshology are particularly critical and require psychologists to institute numerous checks and balances. Questions also arise in regard to liability, where psychologists must consider whether they will have to deal with only the clients they already have, or to disregard the potential jeopardy of contracting and corresponding with referrals or people they have never met in person. The practice of telepychology is to a large extending going to be jeopardized by issues of incompetence in delivery of services. As noted by the APA (1997) committee on ethics, the Ethics Code has not made any direct reference to electronic delivery of psychological services and therefore there are no specific rules and regulations prohibiting or controlling such services. The committee however recommends that psychologists adhere to the standards employed in emerging areas, and take necessary steps in ensuring they are competent in their profession, besides protecting their clients, patients, research participants and students from any harmful practices (Chavis, Stucky & Wandersman, 1983). Delivery of psychological services over electronic media presents a convenient framework for those who intend to engage in mischievous activities. Both the psychologist that provide services and those that seek to acquire them can easily get involved in misrepresentation. Essentially it may not be possible to establish and confirm the identity of a person one is communicating with through electronic media. And even more critical to the integrity of the profession is that remote interventions may make it difficult for anyone to confirm the authenticity of credentials and competence of practitioners. Remote interventions also present the challenge of accurate assessment of special needs and conditions of disability. Effective communication with remote clients may also be hampered by differences in language and culture (Bray, 2010). Psychologists face a daunting task in ensuring confidentiality and privacy are upheld in remote interventions. With the increase in cyberspace malpractices, psychologists have insufficient resources to protect the privacy of their clients. Psychologists can only help protect themselves by fully disclosing to clients the limits of confidentiality when delivering psychological services through electronic media. Clients must be informed in advance how their privacy could be compromised through internet communications, intranets in the work place, telephones and even wireless devices (Sokol & Car, 2006). There are other factors that influence psychologists’ ability to effectively and willingly give psychology away, and which are open to critical evaluation. The past 2-3 decades has witnessed a drastic decline in the average remuneration for psychologists, while there has been a significant increase in the cost of providing psychological interventions. Nonetheless, to get sufficient education and professional training in psychology and finally obtaining the required licensure to practice is time consuming and requires immense resources (Tucker, Sinclair, & Thomas, 2005). Psychologists may have the knowledge, expertise and skills to provide adequate psychological interventions and meet the rising demand for these services, but obtaining a sufficient insurance cover for defense of licensure has proved difficult for many psychologists especially for practitioners who are new in the field. More often than not psychologists have to deal with complainants who files cases without valid reasons, apparently just for purposes of malice or criminal intent. Unfortunately, even when the cases have been thrown out, psychologists cannot recoup legal fees. Defending a practicing license for psychologist has proved to be a time and resource consuming exercise that is detrimental to the integrity of the profession and hampers effective delivery of psychological services. It is of utmost significance that licensing boards play a supportive role in the noble course of giving away psychology back to society (Caplan & Nelson, 1973). Conclusion The achievements made by psychologists in effective translation of psychological theory and principles into practical applications of real life situations meant to enhance human welfare and health, and the drastic revolution in science; medicine and technological innovation have significantly magnified the scope and reach of psychological interventions. Psychologists in earnest endeavor to give psychology back to society are presented with boundless opportunities to demonstrate their significance in transforming society. They have opportunities to expound on their skills and knowledge though enhanced professional and scientific research. The measure of success and improvement in psychological intervention will certainly depend on the quality and scope of objective research into issues that concern human welfare and health, and the willingness and competence of practitioners in delivering quality service to society. These achievements will not be realized without a deliberate commitment by psychologists to appropriate ethical conduct and demonstration of unwavering professionalism. Psychologists have a responsibility to effectively disseminate research findings and knowledge that will make a significant difference in individuals, societies and the international community at large. To this end, Psychologists ought to find better ways of collaborating with the media, technology experts, community leaders and other behavioral and medical scientists to position psychological practice as a significant transformative agent in society. References Leichsenring, F. & Leibing, E. (2003). The effectiveness ofpsychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7), 1223–1233. Koocher G. P. (2007) Twenty-First Century Ethical Challenges for Psychology. The American Psychological Association. Vol. 62, No. 5, 375–384. Tucker, J.S., Sinclair, R. R., & Thomas, J.L. (2005). The multilevel effects of occupational stressors on soldiers' well-being: Organizational attachment, and readiness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 276–299. Bray, J. H. (2010). The Future of Psychology Practice and Science. American Psychological Association. Vol. 65, No. 5, 355–369. Goodheart, C. D. (2010). Psychology Practice: Design for Tomorrow. American Psychological Association. Vol. 66, No. 5, 339–347. Miller, G. (2010). Psychology as A Means of Promoting Human welfare. American psychologist. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a socil cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Karasek, R.A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–307. Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer. Kazdin, A. E. (2009). Psychological Science’s Contributions to a Sustainable Environment Extending Our Reach to a Grand Challenge of Society. American Psychological Association. Vol. 64, No. 5, 339 –356. Florencel, D. (1980). Psyche: From Rocking the Cradleto Rockingthe Boat. The American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol.35, No. 12, 1057-1065. Reisner, A. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. The Psychological Record, 55(3), 377–400. Marks, D.F., Murray, M. et al. (2005). "Health Psychology: Theory, Research & Practice." London, England: Sage Publications. Levant, R. F. (2006). Making Psychology a Household Word. The American Psychological Association. Vol. 61, No. 5, 383–395. Brehm, S. S. (2008). Looking Ahead the Future of Psychology and APA. The American Psychological Association. Vol. 63, No. 5, 337–344. Vasquez, M. J. T. (2012). Psychology and Social Justice: Why We Do What We Do. American Psychological Association. Vol. 67, No. 5, 337–346. Zimbardo, P. G. (2004). Does Psychology Make a Significant Difference in Our Lives? The American Psychological Association. Vol. 59, No. 5, 339 –351. DeLeon, P. H. (2010). Presidential Reflections Past and Future. The American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol. 57, No. 6/7, 425–430. Smith, M. B. (1990). Psychology in the Public Interest: What Have We Done? What Can We Do? The American Psychological Association, Inc. Vol. 45, No. 4, 530-536. Chavis, D. M., Stucky, P. E. & Wandersman, A. (1983). Returning Basic Research to the Community. A relationship Between Scientist and Citizen. By the American Psychological Association, Inc. Caplan, N. & Nelson S. (1973). On Being Useful The Nature and Consequences of Psychological Research On Social Problems. The American Psychological Association, Inc 199-211. Meister, D. (1999). The history of human factors and ergonomics. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Moyle, P. (1998). Longitudinal influences of managerial support on employee well-being. Work & Stress, 12, 29–49 Roscoe, S. N. (1997). The adolescence of engineering psychology. In S. M. Casey (Series Ed.), Human factors history monograph series (Vol. 1). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Schmitt, L. (2007). OHP interventions: Wellness programs. Newsletter of the Society Sokol, D. K., & Car, J. (2006). Patient confidentiality and telephone consultations: Time for a password. Journal of Medical Ethics, 32, 688-689. Bandura, A (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a socil cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bosma, H., Marmot, M.G., Hemingway, H., Nicholson, A.C., Brunner, E., & Stansfeld, S.A. (1997). Low job control and risk of coronary heart disease in Whitehall II (prospective cohort) study. British Medical Journal, 314, 558–565. 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Giving away psychology in practical real life situations has necessitated psychologists to categories psychology into several dimensions or sub ranches that include: clinical psychology, organizational and industrial psychology, counseling psychology, occupational health psychology, forensic psychology, school psychology, community psychology, sports psychology, and engineering psychology (Schmitt, 2007). Vasquez (2012) points out that it is imperative that psychologists effectively communicate their role in responding to needs of the society.

They have a responsibility to find solutions to the psychological and social challenges prevalent in modern society. Psychological research findings have profoundly transformed society by influencing the way people think, their behavior, values, and attitudes. In analyzing how and why psychology should be given away to the public, this study refers to key areas where psychotically intervention has made significant contribution. They include: Clinical/Psychological therapy, psychological assessment, child development, parenting, criminal justice, Education, environment, sports and health (Marks et al., 2005). Clinical/Psychological Therapy Smith (1990) Giving away psychology in clinical or psychotherapy context involves development of formal relationships between practitioners and clients.

Clients may include individuals, families, couples, or small groups. The objective of this relationship is to establish therapeutic alliances and explore psychological problems with the intention of promoting positive thinking and behavior (DeLeon, 2010). According to Roscoe (1997), psychological therapy has effectively been used by psychological practitioners to relieve patients with mental illness. Systematic desensitization, cognitive behavior modification, and therapies of exposure have been used effectively in treatment of anxiety disorders, phobias and panic attacks.

Practitioners also reveal that clinical depression is better treated by a combination of medication and psychotherapy. Essentially, what was previously referred to as “madness” has been demystified, it is now considered to be a behavioral or emotional disorder that can be rectified. Clinical theorists and practitioners have gone further to develop a wide range of treatments for other medical problems such as rehabilitation from drugs and physical disabilities thereby significantly improving social welfare and quality of life (Brehm, 2008).

Psychological Assessment A significant achievement of psychological research is the development of an objective and quantifiable framework for assessment of human abilities, talents, strengths and weaknesses. Objective and systematic psychology procedures are now used by employers, teachers and clinicians to carry out authentic, quantifiable and reliable tests (Sokol & Car, 2006). Modern psychology testing procedures include assessments of personality, intelligence, personality and pathology.

Career advising g and guidance counseling are typically measures of vocational interest (Goodheart, 2010). Child Development Previously there was considerable emphasis on corporal punishment for errors that happened in child rearing and schools. This has been gradually replaced by positive reinforcement to enhance positive responses from children when they are corrected (Straus & Kantor, 1994). To this end, focus in the upbringing of children has shifted from punishment for the undesirable person to punishment for undesirable behavior.

Kazdin (2009) says that previously children were viewed as small adults or property, and later on as property that has increased in value. Development psychologists have helped to reverse this perception. Children are now considered to be persons with legal rights and self-determination, and should therefore be regarded as individuals worthy of their personal freedom (Sokol & Car, 2006) Parenting Psychologists recommend the authoritative parental style in child upbringing, as it creates a more effective bond between the child and parent.

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