Psychology into Adulthood - Assignment Example

TAQ Erikson Stages of Development: Erik Erikson explores three important aspects of identity, namely the self (ego identity), personal identity, and social/cultural identity (Lange, 2012). Erickson theory is referred to as the psychosocial theory of development and it analyses the impact of the external factors, society, and parents on the personality development of a child, to adulthood. Erikson identifies 8 stages that an individual must pass through, and they are reflected in the table below (Lange, 2012); Stage Characteristic Infant Characterized by interactions between the infant and his or her guardian. These interactions can either lead to the emergence of trust or mistrust between the infant and the guardian. Trust will arise when the guardians is able to provide basic needs for the infant. Mistrust arises when the guardian is unable to provide basic needs to the infant. When an infant develops mistrust, he or she becomes suspicious, frustrated, withdrawn, and does not develop confidence. Development of mistrust plays a role in making an infant understand on issues that lead to the development of dangerous living, later on in life. An infant is a child between 0 to 18 months old. Toddlers This is a stage characterized by a child who is between 18 months to 3 years. The existential/ or basic question asked is whether it is right to be himself. They gain an understanding on how to use their motor skills. The encouragement and patience of the parent helps in fostering the autonomy of the child. Children like to explore the world, for purposes of getting knowledge about their environment. A child develops an interest on an issue, i.e. music, or playing with toys, animals, etc. Parents who are very restrictive may create a sense of doubt within a child, limiting their ability to take risks and try new challenges. They gain the ability of satisfying their own needs such as feeding themselves, washing and dressing themselves, as well as using the bathroom. Encouraging a self sufficient behavior would make toddlers to develop risk taking capabilities. Pre-Schooler This is a period in which a child is of ages 3 to 5 years of age. There is a desire of coping up with the adults who surround the child. Making up of stories, and playing out of various roles, of nature. Carrying out experimentations on what it is to be an adult. The pre-scholar is concerned with the identification of social roles. School age This is a period that begins between 6 to 12 years. The child gets the capability of learning, and obtaining new skills. It is a social stage, where a child seeks acceptance amongst their peers. Parents are not a complete authority; in as much they play a significant role in a child’s life. Adolescent This is an individual who is between the ages of 12 to 18 years. Development greatly depends on what the child does. Adolescent struggle to discover their identity. They develop a strong devotion to friends, causes and ideals. Young Adult This is an individual between 18 to 35 years. There is a seeking of love, and deep intimacy. Significant relationships at this stage normally occur with friends, or with marital partners. Middle Aged This is a stage between 35 to 55 years. Family, work and career are very important at this stage. People begin taking great responsibility and control. Old Adult This stage begins at 55 years onwards. There is too much reflection at this stage. They may feel contented or despair, depending on their achievements. By carefully analyzing the cross cultural studies on life stages, they are valid, when looked at, through the perspective of this theory by Erikson. This is because they are in line with the behavior of children and adults, as identified with this theory (Gould, McGarr and Rose, 2007). For instance, it is the role of adults to care for infants, and this plays a role in determining the confidence of the child once he or she grows up. These studies identify adulthood as a period of maturity, and it is this time that an individual would seek for love, or start establishing a family. The only difference is the age upon which an individual becomes an adult. In other cultures, for an individual to become an adult, he or she must pass through a process of initiation. This theory by Erikson has some criticism. One critique is whether these stages follow an identified sequence, within the range in which he suggests. There is a considerable debate on whether people only search for identity during the process of adolescence as suggested by Erikson, and if one stage of development, only happens after the other stage has ended. TAQ 2: (1179 words) Adolescence is a developmental stage that occurs between the stages of childhood, and adulthood. Gould, McGarr and Rose (2007) explains that this is a period of development that emanates from the onset of puberty, to a time in which an individual becomes an adult. This period starts with the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics, and this is between the ages of 11 and 13 years. During this period of time, an individual would experience a variety of biological changes. It is also characterized by a dramatic transition of the sexual, physical, social and intellectual sphere of an individual. This essay will provide a review of various theories of adolescence, and the extent in which these theories characterize adolescence as a period of stress and storm. This paper will also discuss the changing concept of adolescence throughout history, and the cultural context of adolescence. Hall (1904) believes that it is accurate to trace the notion of adolescent as a time of stress and storm with the writings of Aristotle, and Plato. Plato was able to describe boys passing through this period of adolescence as easily excited, and constantly arguing (King, 2009). Aristotle on the other hand described adolescents as people, who lacked sexual self-restraint, impulsive, and passionate (Hutchison, 2013). Rousseau was the first person to give a difference between children and adolescents. Rousseau described this concept as a period in which individual experienced changes in humor had a constant mind agitation, experienced frequent anger, and the behavior of the child was unmanageable (King, 2009). Culturally, during the 18th century, adolescent was depicted in the middle and upper class children (Hutchison, 2013). After the Second World War, this concept of adolescent was recognized as a stage in the development of a child. These historical and cultural stereotypes act as a foundation of the modern day understanding of this concept of adolescence (Vaillant, 2002). One of the major theories that depict adolescence as a period of storm and stress is the psychosexual theory that is developed by Freud. This theoretical framework identifies the final stage of psychosexual growth, as the genital phase (Wille, 2011). During this stage, a child passes through a series of impulses that makes a disruption between the id and the ego. The impulse of the id pulls the ego, and restrictions are brought forth by the superego. Freud therefore argues that this conflict between the id and the ego makes adolescence to be a period of great stress and turmoil. However, this work of Freud is greatly criticized by psychologists. This is because this theoretical study was based from the results of a limited number of case studies (Wille, 2011). The major reason as to why the use of limited number case studies is a disadvantage is based on consistency. To have a reliable answer through a case study, it is appropriate to study large samples, of case studies, and they have to be consistent. The results are therefore unreliable, and should not be generalized on an entire population. Hutchison (2013) further explains that this theory by Freud does not have any empirical support, and this is because the constructions of the ego, id and superego are viewed as subjective, hence it is difficult to measure them. This is because the results of the study are mainly based on the recollections of the adult patients of Freud. Furthermore, future predictions in this theory are too vague. This is because the length of time that exists between the cause of a behavior and its effect is very long. Another critique of this theory is that it is difficult to test some of the concepts identified in it. An example is a concept such as libido. On a cultural perspective, critiques denote that this theory is wrong in asserting that there is a enemity between a father and his son. However, the real conflict existed amongst children and their uncles. This is because it is uncles who were responsible for punishing their nephews. The psychosocial theory, developed by Erikson takes a wider view on the factors that promote the development of a child (Brown and Stenner, 2009). Erickson’s theory gives a view that promotion of personal identity is far much important, than reaching sexual maturity (Heard, Lake and McCluskey, 2009). The psychosocial theory emphasizes on the cultural and social development of an adolescent. This theory views identity as a concept of self continuity. Erickson also believed that adolescent is a period of storm and stress (Brown and Stenner, 2009). This is made possible because they pass through a series of identity crisis. Brown and Stenner (2009) defines this period as a time in which an adolescent passes through a series of troubles, because of their lack of identity. The psychosocial theory has come under a lot of criticism, and this is because it relies on the results of observations made on young people, who were undergoing some therapy (Brown and Stenner, 2009). This is not a true representation of adolescents. Furthermore, psychologists believe that quite a number of adolescents do not encounter psychological difficulties (Wille, 2011). The theory of identity underachievement does not agree with the assertion that adolescent is a period of storm and crisis (Vohs, 2012). This theory denotes that the formation of the identity of an adolescent has two main parts, namely crisis, and commitment. Trauma occurs amongst the adolescents because of the difficult choices they make regarding their identity. On this basis, the adolescent period is a time when an individual acquires his or her own identity. This theoretical connotation is criticized by the fact that not all adolescents are able to acquire their own identity. Some people do not achieve a higher level of identity, until their mid 20s (Overton and Ennis, 2006). Evidence suggests that the search of an individual’s identity normally continues in to the whole life span of a person (Vohs, 2012). The strain theory supports this idea by Marcia, that adolescent is not a period of storm and stress. This theory denotes that adolescents normally develop a desire for the privileges enjoyed by adults. This includes money, status, and autonomy. Furthermore, this theory denotes that adolescents are always denied such kind of privileges by adults, specifically their parents (Lange, 2012). However, this theoretical frame work is criticized because it inaccurately depicts the relationship between an adolescent, and their parents. As a matter of facts, adolescents value their parents, when compared to their peers. This notion that adolescent is a period of stress and storm is based on a variety of theories. Each of the theories provides a unique explanation on the reasons that adolescence experience turmoil (Lange, 2012). These reasons range from cognitive, sexual, or social challenges. However, these conflicts experienced by adolescents are just a normal procedure for their growth, and this is just a step of their transition to adulthood. The psychosexual theory and psychosocial theory are in support of the notion that adolescence causes stress and storm. The theories of identity underachievement and the strain theory refute the assertion that adolescence is a period of storm and stress. TAQ 3: Impact of Typical Life Events: One life event experienced is marriage. This was a marriage between my best friend, who was aged thirty years, and his fiancée who was aged 27 years. My friend met her bride when he was 25 years, and they started the relationship as friends. It is during this age, that my friend got a job, and it was a year after graduating from college. His fiancée had also graduated from college, and she was running her own business, that is a boutique. This stage, in which they were able to meet each other, was a stage of early adulthood, and it is at this stage that people normally seek to look for serious friendships, as well as looking for love. This came true, to my thirty year old friend, and his fiancée who was 27 years of age. During this ceremony, numerous people were invited, and this includes the work colleague of my friend, his own parents, and siblings. In the testimony of his parent, my friend left home when he was 21 years, and began looking for staying by himself. This is because he cited that he wanted to become independent from the influences of his parents. This is a typically characteristic of this stage, and this is mostly because an individual becomes an adult, and he or she would like minimal intervention of their lives by parents or guardians. This was a very happy moment from my friend, and this was experienced by the manner in which he danced, sang, and even praising his wife at the reception. He praised his wife for choosing to settle with him, and he thus considered himself a lucky man. It is important to understand that people normally choose to settle between the ages of 30, to 35 years. This is a period in which they began concentrating of making families and their careers. Bibliography: Brown, S., & Stenner, P. (2009). Psychology without foundations history, philosophy and psychosocial theory. London: Sage Publications. Douvan, E., & Adelson, J. (1966). The adolescent experience. New York: Wiley. Gould, S. J., McGarr, P., & Rose, S. P. (2007). The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould. New York: W.W. Norton. Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence; its psychology and its relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion and education,. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Heard, D., Lake, B., & McCluskey, U. (2009). Attachment therapy with adolescents and adults theory and practice post Bowlby. London: Karnac Books. Hutchison, E. D. (2013). Essentials of human behavior: integrating person, environment, and the life course. Los Angeles: SAGE. King, P. M. (2009). Principles of Development and Developmental Change Underlying Theories of Cognitive and Moral Development. Journal of College Student Development, 50(6), 597-620. Lange, P. A. (2012). Handbook of theories of social psychology. Los Angeles: SAGE. Overton, W. F., & Ennis, M. D. (2006). Cognitive-Developmental and Behavior-Analytic Theories: Evolving into Complementarity. Human Development, 49(3), 143-172. Wille, G. (2011). The early years of life psychoanalytical development theory according to Freud, Klein and Bion. London: Karnac. Vaillant, G. E. (2002). Aging well: surprising guideposts to a happier life from the landmark Harvard study of adult development. Boston: Little, Brown. Vohs, K. D. (2012). Self and identity. Los Angles, Calif.: SAGE. Read More