The Psychology of Problem - Essay Example

2 Well-defined and ill-defined problems Problem is the process of going from the initial to the desired (goal) which requires a set of operations or allowable actions toward solution to be done. Well-defined problems are those problems whose goals, path to solution, and obstacles to solution are clear based on the information given. (Davidson, Sternberg, 2004) Ill-defined problems are characterized by their lack of a clear path to solution. Such problems often lack a clear problem statement as well, making the task of problem definition and problem representation quite challenging. (Davidson, Sternberg, 2004) A. In the first example the problem can be defined as following: “the necessity to find another means to get to the campus as the habitual ones (personal car) became inapplicable in the current situation”. From my point of view, depending on the obstacles this problem can be well-defined the same as ill-defined. In case, the area where person lives has some public transport the problem can be determined as well-defined. The goal is to find out which transport goes to the campus; the solution is to inquire about its timetable etc. In this case the solution is clear and the problem is well-defined. In case, the person lives in the area where there is no public transport at all, the problem turns to be ill-defined as the solution and the corresponding steps are not clear yet. For example, the person can ask his relatives/ neighbors who live together with him / next door to take person to the campus; or a person can buy a bicycle which is still much cheaper than car. Such circumstances provide a range of solution which are not obvious at the moment and only for the person to decide himself. B. The problem in the second example can be described as well-defined as, first of all, the task is most certainly not new for a person and they might have some algorithm of handling it; secondly, the steps for completing the task are quite obvious: 1) determine the specific topic relying on the given theme; 2) go to the library / search the Internet to collect the sources; 3) analyze the sources; 4) plan the essay structure; 5) write it down; 6) pass to the teacher. C. The third problem should be determined as ill-structures cause it can have more than one solution: 1) to wake up “your significant” and decide together whether to go to dinner or to stay home and keep sleeping; 2) not to wake her (him) up and wait until, say, the next day to rearrange the dinner. Whatever the solution is, it is not clearly obvious making the problem ill-defined. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 3 Identify some of the aspects of Constructivist Theory, Problem Solving and Critical Thinking. Give examples of how they are used in learning activities and how effective they may be. How would you include and incorporate these theories and concepts in your teaching? Introduction The Constructivism Theory suggests an alternative way of studying based on the idea that learning outcomes from the persons prior knowledge and experience. The theorists of Constructivism (C:Egan, 1984; Bodner, 1986; Glasersfeld, 1989;Garrison, 1998; Novak, 1993; Phillips, 2000, Taber, 2009) believe that ones own “understanding and knowledge of the world” is naturally possible “through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences” (web). Due to the Constructivism principles of teaching and learning the student/learner becomes an active participant of the educational process, while the teacher acts as guide and supervisor who provides students with only “optimum”, “minimum” instructions, allowing the latter to make their own “open-ended discoveries” (Taber, 2011). CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 4 The Constructivism as a theory in general relies on the conception that once we receive some new information, it is inevitable that, either consciously or unconsciously, we start comparing it with our prior ideas, experience, beliefs, etc. and, as a result create our own new knowledge. Constructivism as educational theory “comprises of ideas how human learning occurs, and the factors that tend to channel learning; and ideas how curriculum and instructions should be designed to best respond to educational purposes, given what is understood about learning” (Taber, 2011). Originally, constructivism as educational theory emerged from so-called “environment-based” learning: the new knowledge was generated “by recognizing the meaning of what was found in environment... Object or event in the environment was assumed to have some inherent meaning, which the learner were able to identify, and so add to their store of knowledge about the world” (Taber, 2011). The idea of finding and identifying new meaning of already known objects, in fact, is the core idea of Constructivism. Due to the Constructivism the nature of human learning is determined by two main peculiarities: 1) “Human learning is constrained and channeled by the nature of the cognitive apparatus that inevitably has built-in biases” (Taber, 2011); 2) “Human learning is contingent upon the cognitive resources that are available to any particular individual to interpret (make sense of) information” (Taber, 2011). The theoretical basis of Constructivism is also majorly based on the idea of Vygotsky about so-called “zone of poximal, or next, development (ZPD)”. According to this theory there is a number of tasks that person can handle on his own, without any help. Nevertheless, there are always more complicated activities that person is not able to complete himself yet, though can do in case someone more knowledgeable assists him (Taber, 2011). According to the Constructivism Theory the process of interpretation is considered to be one of the central notions in the students learning activity. The Constructivism view suggests that every person constructs his own idea of what has been seen or heard, which enables person to interpret new information based on his “knowledge and understanding” (Taber, 2011). As a result, the ability to interpret helps person to formulate his individual comprehension of the studied subject. The process of studying in the Constructivism Theory rests upon the operations of analyzing and CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 5 comparing information. Those processes are essential for the improvement of persons critical and flexible thinking. Among the most widely used teaching techniques offered by the Constructivism way of learning are the following: a) inquiries, which “prompt students to formulate their own questions”; b) multiple intelligences that “allow multiple interpretations and expressions of learning”; c) collaborative learning that “encourages group work and the use of peers as resources” (Taber, 2011). “Constructivism offers the basis for learner-centered teaching”, where “the students are actively involved in their own process of learning” (Taber, 2011). Constructivists believe that students can use their previously formulated ideas and understandings as the “raw material” for the “new knowledge”. Thus, the Constructivism methods of learning leave space for the students individual activity such as experimenting, asking questions, discussing their tasks etc., which allow to develop students basic skills and knowledge easily and effectively. “In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view” (Workshop, 2004). One of the main directions in which the constructivist classroom works is the collaboration between students. Collaboration is considered important because it helps students to learn “not only from themselves, but also from their peers. When students review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another” (Workshop, 2004). Constructivism as a teaching method can be applied to almost any subject which defines the universal nature of its principles and ways of presenting new information. We believe that it can as well be one of the most efficient ways of teaching 1st Grade Reading. The main purpose of the Reading activities is to improve students language arts skills, expand their vocabulary etc. Collaboration can be used to teach reading 1st grade learners in the means of collective games based on, for example, guessing new words, performing short plays using already learnt words etc. For example, the students are divided in 2 (or more groups), the teacher gives some indicating word (e. g., dog) and the pupils should create as much related words as they can. The group which creates more words CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 6 wins. Another example of collaborative activity is collective discussion of the previously read text which enables pupils to improve their speaking and thinking skills. “Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others, which is essential to success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others” (Workshop, 2004). The key role of the teacher in the Constructivism teaching theory is determined by his functions of “coaching, mediating, prompting, encouraging students to use active techniques, helping to develop their understanding and learning and... asking good questions” (Workshop, 2004). Unlike conservative / traditional educators, constructivist teachers “help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions, and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment” (Taber, 2011), which makes students actively involved in the process of studying. In his book “Constructivism as Educational Theory” Keith S. Taber identifies the main constructivist principles for teachers, among which are the following: 1) teachers should perform relevant ideas of already available knowledge so they could assimilate new information on its basis; 2) teachers should be careful and attentive in their guiding instructions as it depends on the correctness and relevance on the students future knowledge; 3) appealing to the idea that “all students are different, with their own “unique conceptual and cognitive resources”, with their own ways of “ understanding and interpreting lectures”, the teacher should find such ways of presenting subject (as well as using individual approach to every student) that will make “all the learners to develop in the same “direction” (Taber, 2011); 4) the teacher should also combine “the learning of the simple facts [presenting information] with some CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 7 higher level educational goals: learning research skills on the Internet, developing skills of self-directed learning and greater metacognitive awareness; ability to cooperate effectively in small group, etc.” (Taber, 2011) Thus, once the information becomes more complex and extensional students require some guidance and encouragement to successfully integrate new knowledge. So, under these circumstances teacher discharges a function of mediator in the students learning and reflection processes. The constructivism theory states that student learning can be successful only in case that “teacher has a good understanding of both where the learner is now and where the learner is expected to go to as well as of appropriate levels and form of guidance to bring this about” (Taber, 2011). Psychologists have proven that people are more likely to remember the information which seems interesting to them. Moreover, the amount of audio perceived information should not exceed 3 minutes after which listeners become bored and, as a result, stop accepting it efficiently. The constructivist approach helps to fulfill both of the given requirements, especially when we talk about 1st grade pupils. The necessity to produce ones own solutions to the given tasks as well as constant speaking and discussion make learners feel themselves totally involved in the process of studying which automatically converts lesson into an interesting and fascinating activity. Secondly, the lectures limited in time provide students only with the basic knowledge required for the further fruitful learning and, thus, saves children from the oppression of long and boring facts. All this contributes to the high level of information perception among the learners. Applied to the 1st grade Reading lessons we assume that the main role of the teacher here is to prepare interesting tasks for children, stimulate them ask and answer questions on the given theme of the lesson, control the right track of the information “development” during the lesson. Teaching on the grounds of constructivism helps students to “learn how to think”. Due to the logic and consequence on which constructivist classrooms are based learners get used to critical thinking as they are always in the process of creating bonds and sequences between their own thoughts and ideas. Two most significant activities in a constructivist classroom are solving problems and asking questions CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 8 (“enquiring” (Taber, 2011)). “Students use inquiry methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions” (Workshop, 2004). Keih S. Taber points out that it is very important to teach students how to ask and answer “enquiries” as it is impossible for them to find correct answers until students learn “to pose good questions and develop their skills in the methods of enquiry: data collection, analysis, argumentation, etc.” (Taber, 2011) Thus, we can conclude that constructivist teaching theory considers learners as the direct creators of their own knowledge. It is based upon the belief that learning should be built on the objects and ideas which are already familiar to the student. Constructivist theory “learns how to think” and as a result develops critical thinking. Among its primary methods are problem solving and inquiring. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY 9 References 1. Davidson J. E., Sternberg R. J. (March 24, 2003). The Psychology of Problem. N. Y., Cambridge University Press. isbn 0-521-79333-5– 2. Taber K. S. (2011). Constructivism as Educational Theory: Contingency in Learning, And Optimally Guided Instruction. In Jaleh Hassaskhah (2011). Educational Theory (pp. 39 – 61). N. Y., Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 3. Workshop: Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. (2004). Retrieved from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html Read More