Social Interaction - Assignment Example

TAQ Implicit Personality theory presupposes that people make impressions about personality traits of others depending on whether they believe in static or malleable nature of human personality. Dwek conducted an experiment where the participants had to predict person`s behavior in a social or professional situation basing on the observation of the person in a single episode. If participants of the experiment sticked to entity perception, they easily applied inferences achieved from the first meeting and expected people to behave in such a way in the rest of the situations. However, if participants were prone to consider human traits changeable, they did not draw conclusions from the single episode to the whole characteristics (1993). Overestimated correlation between two traits is one of the most common misinterpretations of implicit theory (Murphy 1989). The theory can also be regarded as the variation of liberal and conservative ideologies, which proves its credibility (Jost & Hunyady, 2005). According to Banaji and Greenwald, stereotypes remind strong associations that are rooted deep into consciousness. In the experiment described by the scientists people had to assess the characteristics of being either good or bad if they were accompanied by typical “white” and “black” names. Respondents pressed the key faster in cases when good adjectives were describing “white” people while “bad” adjectives were describing “bad”. Stereotyping is a widely accepted phenomenon in scientific circles and attracts little critics. Moreover, there is a notion of self-stereotyping when, for instance, women consider themselves less competent in math than men (Corell & Shelley, 2001). Carol S., & Dweck, J., 1993. Implicit theories: individual differences in the likelihood and meaning of dispositional Inference, Personality and Social Psychology, p. 644. Correll, K., & Shelley J., 2001. Gender and the career choice process: The role of biased self-assessments. American Journal of Sociology, 106 (6), pp. 1691–1730. Greenwald, A. G. & Banaji, M., 1995. Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27. Jost, J., & Hunyady, O., 2005. Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies, Current Directions in Psychology, 206, 160-261. Murphy, K.R., & Jako, R., 1989. Under what conditions are observed intercorrelations greater or smaller than true intercorrelations? Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(5), 827-830 TAQ 2 Attribution theory is the theory that aims to distinguish the reasons of human behavior or the external events. Moreover, it aims to explain how the person deals with the information to achieve certain conclusions, which means how this information is gathered and interpreted. Bernard Weiner was an originator of attribution theory or, it is more precise to say that he has developed a basis for this theory. According to Weiner, people pass three stages in interpreting someone`s behavior: firstly, behavior is observed and perceived, secondly, behavior is assessed as deliberate, thirdly, internal or external reasons of behavior are defined. Attributions are divided into three major categories: internal and external reasoning, stable and changeable, controllable and uncontrollable. It was stated by Weiner that people are prone to explain their own success by internal causes (like efforts and talent), while success of others is attributed to external reasons (help, luck) (Learning Theories, 2012). This theory was developing in line with social psychology generally as the means of problems solution connected to social perception: if a person behaves aggressively aiming for victory, it is disputable whether it means that he is generally such a person or that he reacts to this certain situation in such a way. Heider claims that most people deal with perceptions in the terms of naïve psychology which means that they tend to pierce received information together until they are ready to make conclusions (1958). An individual trying to comprehend why someone else did something may find one or more causes to that conduct. As indicated by Heider an individual can make two attributions 1) internal, which means that a person behaves in a certain way due to his personality traits, temperament or attitude 2) external that means that a person`s conduct can be attributed to the situation or his reaction to it (1958). Emotions and motivation serve as a driving force determining people`s attributions. Faulting other individuals and maintaining a strategic distance from particular recrimination are those attributions which help self-defensing. People are also prone to make attributions to safeguard what they perceive as assaults. People also easily emphasize injustice if they face it. Moreover, they have a tendency to blame victims of their actions and the actions of others in order to separate themselves from suffering the same way. It is also common to consider other less variable and multifaceted because we have possibility of spending most of the time with ourselves (Heider, 1958). Jones and Davis explored the theory further and were the first who represented the theory of dispositional interference. They explain that the person makes conclusions regarding personality traits and his/her attitude from the person`s behavior. However they paid special attention to intentional behavior trying to explain what motives and reasons a person chooses for this or that way of conduct. Their theory claims that people are prone to make internal attributions when they can acknowledge connection between motives and reasons. The theory defines conditions under which people explain internal attributes as those having internal motivation. When a person chooses consciously his/her behavior patterns and acts intentionally he is perceived as to be driven by internal factors. Other factors that can point to the internal inferences are low social acceptance, personal interest, and hedonistic aims (Jones & Davis, 1965). Kelly extended the theory and introduced direct methods according to which it is possible to interpret human behavior and define the factors (internal or external) that explain particular person`s action. A person receives information and makes conclusions if he/she has enough information to compare, thus, attribution is made if it has a reason with which it can be covariated over time. Three criteria may influence person`s attribution: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. These two things influence one another and we understand that certain behavior was provoked either by internal or environmental reasons. This idea can explain the reasons of behavior to certain extent. We do try to comprehend the motives of person`s actions and define his/her traits of character from the first meeting. We also are prone to compare general human behavior in certain situation with particular person`s actions and his/her way of conduct. When we do not have enough information about the person we get back to personal experience or previous deeds and rely on the experience of people in the same situation (Modway, 1987). Keene, E. ed., 1988. Natural language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. Heider, F., 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: Wiley Jones, E., Davis, K., 1965. From acts to dispositions: the attribution procesin social psychology. Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press Learning Theories. Attribution theory. Retrieved from: http://www.learning-theories.com/weiners-attribution-theory.html McLeod, S., 2010. Attribution theory. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from: http://lingro.com/translate/http://www.simplypsychology.org/attribution-theory.html Mowday, R., 2010. Beliefs about the causes of behavior: the motivational implications of attribution processes. Motivation and work behavior. Retrieved from: http://www.dsmgt310.faculty.ku.edu/SuppMaterial/KelleyAttributionTheory.htm TAQ 3 Biased attribution held Cognitive factors Motivational factors Mustafa Punctual Mustafa notices all the people who are late in the company. He considers Kimberly to be lazy and not deserving her promotion. Mustafa analyzes frequent Kimberly`s being late and makes conclusion that Kimberly is simply lazy and is not interested in creating a positive image at work. Mustafa apparently wants a promotion himself or sees Kimberly as his rival at work. His diligence proves that he has promotion goals. He points to Kimberly`s being late and underlines her frequent late comings in order to show himself in a better light. Martha Martha explains Kimberly`s late coming by traffic problems and says she had never seen her late. Martha does not want to believe that her friend is irresponsible and tries to justify her actions in every possible way. She recalls some information about road works and attributes Kimberly`s being late to his reason. Martha is Kimberly`s friend despite the fact that they work together. Her motivation of meeting is explained by desire of sharing personal emotional information. She is prone to shield Kimberly`s reputation. TAQ 4 Self –monitoring strategy allows people to track their own behavior and use it purposefully to enhance social relationships. Self-monitoring strategy is effective in overcoming behavioral problems. Snyder developed a scale according to which it is possible to assess self-monitoring and self-controlling efforts in social interactions. Basically, people are prone to be high self-monitors or low-self monitors in social interaction. High self-monitors are good in reading faces and choosing appropriate way of conduct to the peculiar situation. They act like social chameleons while low self-monitors tent to preserve their personality in each situation and not to adjust to each interlocutor (1985). I prefer using high self-monitoring strategy in order to achieve communication goals. Self- presentation strategy relies upon the motivation to represent oneself in the best light to the audience. There are two possible reasons of self-representation, one of which is self-construction in the process and the other one is the desire to receive a feedback from the audience. There is also possibility to represent oneself as intimidating or suffering in order to influence or manipulate the audience (Baumeister & Hutton, 1987). I suppose using self-presentation with the aim of self-constructing is possible for me as in order to find my true self I had to communicate in different groups representing myself from multiple sides which has helped me eventually to form a coherent personality. Baumeister, R., & Hutton, D., 1987. Self-presentation theory: self-construction and audience pleasing. Theories of group behavior. New York: Springer Verlag. Snyder, C., 1985. Collaborative Companions: The relationship of self-deception and excuse making, self-deception and self-understanding: New essays in philosophy and psychology. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press. TAQ 5 Among the major factors that influence relationships formation it is possible to distinguish physical attractiveness, social similarity, proximity, attitude similarity, and similar personality types. Physical attractiveness plays a primary role in person`s assessment of probable relationships. Moreover, there also exists “halo effect” which makes an attractive person more intelligent, sociable in the perception of the viewers. Proximity is the next factor influencing relationships formation. It states that people are prone to feel attraction to those whom they find close to them. Similarity is crucial for relationships formation as well, friendships and intimate connections base around common hobbies are usually much more stable (Brune et al., 1968). Personality similarity makes communication easier and more productive whereas social similarity allows looking on the common problems in the same way. In the case of this date it turned out that all the factors that attracted the woman: appearance and personal and social similarity were false (Forming relationships, 2012). Brune, J., Connard, H., & Ross, J., 1968. Social relationships mechanisms. London: ABC Press Forming relationships., 2012. BBC Psychology. Retrieved from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/teachers/pshe_11_14/subject_areas/relationships/newsid_1844000/1844390.stm TAQ 6 Balance theory was introduced by Heider and aimed to explore how people create relationships with other people and with surrounding objects. The theory suggests that if a person observes a set of cognitive elements that are systematical, then he/she will consider keeping balance within this system being preferable. Moreover, falling out of balance will make the person seek balance restoration. This theory explains why people who have common enemy unite together and why “a friend of my friend is my friend” (1958) Social exchange theory presupposes that two individuals have something to share and they find out whether they want to share it and in what amount. According to this theory each individual is aiming to enhance his/her productivity and enlarge his/her wins. Self-interest serves as a driving force in relationship and is applied in various ways from market relationships building to finding new friends. Thus, people having certain resources to share (emotional, intellectual, psychological, material) share with other in exchange of something they need for development. I suppose social exchange theory can be applied to my life as sometimes I make friends out of exchange of information, emotions, and assistance in certain things. It is common for all people to seek companionship and share in exchange of something valuable. Heider, F., 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. TAQ 7 I have chosen Scenario 1. Age difference serves as a common reason for divorce especially when the man is much younger than a woman. Immaturity, different life goals and views, subsequent financial problems most commonly serve as the reasons to divorce. Immaturity is the most probable reason as age difference in this couple is striking. While the woman would like to build secure, stable relationships and have children, the man would want to confirm his love and become “an adult” in one step. Thus, it will certainly lead to future problems, which will reveal different life goals. At 17 it is reasonable to search for identity, choose career, experiment with friends, and committing to long lasting relationships may cause premature adulthood, dissatisfaction, and depression. The couple will most certainly experience financial problems which will cause conflicts and misunderstanding (Amato & Previti, 2003). Amato, P., & Previti, D., 2003. People’s Reasons for divorcing: gender, social class, the life course, and adjustment, Journal of family issues, 24 (5), SAGE Publications. TAQ 8 According to Duck, relationships dissolution is not a single event but rather a long-term exhausting process. It involves psychological and social work and includes four phases: intrapsychic stage, dyadic phase, social phase, and grave-dressing phase (1982). Intrapsychic phase consist of one of the partners dissatisfaction acknowledgement with the relationship in any of the aspects, such as partner`s preferences, habits, lifestyle, appearance. This information can be transferred to external party, which is often not connected to each of the partners. Such information disclosure may even reduce the conflict and make the whole problem irrelevant. If it does not occur, the relationships pass to the dyadic phase. The confrontation and dissatisfaction is voiced by one of the partners and the couple has to deal with it. Such discussions can be unpleasant and difficult and can lead to either mutual agreement or decision to work on the relationships or worse conflict. If the conflict is not solved the relationships pass into the social stage, which means that more parties, all those people who are involved into the life of the couple become aware of the conflict and future dissolution. It signifies that the partners can no longer resolve the conflict personally and they agree to dissolve the relationship in public, which means that they become available for similar relationships with other partners. Grave-dressing stage presupposes acceptance, grieving, and finding the ways to interact if necessary with ex-partner. IIINInttrrslk Duck, S., 1982. Personal relations: dissolving personal relationships. New York: Academic Press. TAQ 9 According to Emmers and Canary, relationships repair strategies can be divided into 4 categories: passive, active, interactive, and uncertainty acceptance. Passive strategy includes letting go the situation and doing nothing. Interactive strategy involves determining the reasons of relationships failure, apologizing, spending time with a partner. Active behavior presupposes indirect involvement which means dealing with the problems with the help of friends and presents. Uncertainty accepting means neglecting the problems and building relationships with another partner in the relationships. According to research, interactive strategy is the most effective and reasonable (1996). Justin Timberlake and Jessica Biel can be an example of the couple that fixed their relationships and got married eventually. Emmers, T., & Cannary, D., 1996. The effect of uncertainty reducing strategies on young couples relational repair and intimacy, Communication Quarterly, 44(2), 166-182. Read More