Explanations of Human Behaviour - Coursework Example

Explanations of Human Behaviour Introduction Human beings differ from animals in many ways. One of the most significant ways in which people differ from animals is in cognitive abilities. Animals tend to react out of instinct, while human beings are equipped with the capacity to be able to think through different factors before making decisions. An instinct is simply a behaviour that is performed without any prior exercising of choice or free will. Human beings also rely on instinct at certain times, but even this is an act of will. There are numerous psychological theories that have been put forward to explain why human beings behave as they do. These theories tend to focus on elements such as science, genetics, or nature. Theoretical approaches used to explain human behaviour include the psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, humanist, evolutionary, and biological models. Each of these theories has a different view on the reason why aggression exists. Aggression, which is a behavior that is experienced by all individuals, can be expressed through mental, physical, or verbal means. Like other human behaviors, aggression is usually examined in regards to how it assists fundamental human functions such as reproduction, or ensuring survival. Explanations for Human Behaviour according to different Models In the study of human behaviour, the occurrence of characteristics such as aggression comes from external stimuli even though internal factors such as biological elements also have a significant role in motivating aggression. Psychologists, among other scholars, have been able to explore the association between the demonstration of aggression and external as well as internal factors. The Psychodynamic Model on Human Behaviour The psychodynamic perspective was popularised by scholars like Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Carl Jung. Sigmund Freud came up with definite concepts about factors such as denial, the subconscious, and repression. He contended that childhood events significantly affect the way people behave in their later years. According to Webb, Sniehotta, and Michie (2010) Freud stated that free will has little effect, if any, on how people acquired definite behavioural patterns. The Behaviourist Perspective Behaviourism tends to focus on the extent to which people’s behaviour is affected by their environment. This theory contends that people are the product of the stimuli in their surroundings. Behaviourism has forwarded two processes- those of operant and classical conditioning- to support the premise of how human beings acquire behavioural characteristics by learning through association. Behaviourism also supports the use of controlled experiments, which are a type of scientific methodology, to determine how human behaviour is developed in accordance with an individual’s environment. The behaviourist theory essentially disregards the notion that people can exercise their free will when deciding how they will react to different situations, and instead reduces the entire process of human behaviour to learned stimulus reactions. The scholars, B. F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov supported the behaviourist principles, and confirmed their validity through a series of experiments. In conducting experiments which supported classical conditioning, the Russian scholar, Ivan Pavlov, conditioned his animals to salivate once they heard sounds which they learnt to associate with food. B. F. Skinner, who carried out investigations to determine the validity of operant conditioning, determined that a large percentage of behaviours could be determined by the use of factors such as negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement, and punishment. Cognitive Psychology Another theoretical explanation for human behaviour is cognitive psychology. In the late 1800s, Wilhelm Wundt proposed the concept that factors such as sensory perception and memory were related to psychological processes that take part in the brain. Known as cognitive psychology, this perspective was also accepted by the ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. This theory is centred on the fact that mental processes are the only ones that determine the way people behave in different settings. According to Comer (2005) cognitive psychologists contend that there are three significant phases that are involved in the intake of knowledge. The first stage, which is the encoding stage, where knowledge is acquired, is followed by the storage phase, where knowledge that has previously been acquired is retained. The last stage is that of retrieval, in which knowledge is recollected. The model of cognitive psychology makes use of scientific approaches such as laboratory experiments to examine the development of human behaviours. Humanism Humanistic psychology tends to stress on the significance of examining all facets of the human being when seeking to determine the reason why an individual behaves as he or she does. According to Ryan, La Guardia, and Solky-Butzel (2005), humanist scholars tend to examine human behaviour through the perspective of the individual manifesting the behaviour. For them, the manifestation of human behaviour is linked to an individual’s self-image as well as innermost emotions. Any individual is capable of changing his or her emotions as a result of free will. According to (Barrett and Kurzban 2006) all people have the capacity to achieve self actualisation. This reality weakens the argument for the use of scientific experiments to determine the concepts that affect human behaviour. Some of the most recognised proponents of humanist philosophies include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary theories endeavour to supply a historical evaluation of human behaviours, with a special emphasis on explaining why people today have the behaviours that they do. The evolutionary approach emphasises on the importance of selective pressures that have played a significant role in the development of human thinking patterns since the days of the ancestors of the present day human beings who were hunters and gatherers. The evolutionary theory contends that the human mind has continuously been developed to solve common human problems by following certain thinking patterns. The Biological Model The biological model contends that all human behaviour is the result of adaptations that were made within the human race. This means that there are actual biological characteristics hat determine the changes in behaviour that may be witnessed in human beings. For example, it is a well known fact that immediately after his child is born, testosterone levels in the male parent tend to drop. This means that the male parent will be less aggressive, and thus in the best position to assist his child’s mother with the responsibilities of taking care of the child. According to Vittengl, Clark, and Jarrett (2004) biological psychologists tend to give explanations for human behaviour according to neurological concepts such as the brain’s physiology and its affect on human behaviour. Describe and critically evaluate aspects of human behavior (for example aggression addiction, depression, phobias) by reference to more than one theoretical perspective Application of the Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic theory has certain strengths. For example, it can easily be fitted with concepts in other theories and has survived the test of time. Freud’s initial premise has been improved upon by different succeeding psychologists like Erik Erikson and Carl Jung. Terms and expressions that were first used by Sigmund Freud, such as ‘psychoanalysis’, are still used in the field of psychology. Psychoanalysis, which was first proposed and used by Freud, is today an accepted part of medical practice in different organisations. According to West (2006) psychoanalysis has allowed psychologists to learn about various facets of the inner workings of the human mind. Psychodynamic model facets such as psychoanalysis are quite in depth in their explanation of psychological elements. Both Erikson and Jung invented individual psychodynamic models which dealt with the importance of factors such as dream analysis and the unconscious mind. Psychodynamic theories are centred on the importance of the inner conflicts that are often experienced by people. According to Barrett and Kurzban (2006), other scholars who supported the psychodynamic theory such as Erik Erikson contended that events that occur during one’s childhood have the capacity to negatively affect the mental development of the person in question as he or she will miss out on fundamental life stages such as initiative vs. guilt, or industry vs. inferiority because of the existence of unresolved conflicts which preoccupy the mind and push out all other developments. The psychodynamic approach though, has certain limitations. For example, it cannot be said to be scientific. For this reason, its claims cannot be logically substantiated. It also tends to focus too much on childhood events and the subconscious. It also does not address how factors such as socialisation affect the probability of a person developing depression. There are different ways in which the different theories interpret the existence of emotion-related concepts such as phobias, aggression, depression, and addiction. In regards to the manifestation of behaviours such as addiction, aggression, depression, or phobias, the psychodynamic theory contends that for an individual to heal and move on from such issues, there has to be a high level of self-awareness. This is because the behaviours of human beings are determined by internal forces and unconscious motivations which control primitive drives. The individual in question has to be able to understand how the past has affected his or her life, and then make a conscious decision to move away from that influence after resolving the past issues. The psychodynamic model gives an individual the opportunity to be able to observe past dysfunctional relationships from an objective perspective. In regards to the presentation of issues such as aggression, the individual would then be able to determine how these inappropriate past relationships then manifest themselves in the demonstration of negative emotions. Application of Behaviourism, and its Strengths and Weaknesses The fact that behaviourism can be scientifically proven serves to increase its standing as a valid theory. It is also a highly applicable model that can be used in aspects such as therapy. The theory of behaviourism stresses on achieving objective measurement; and its proponents have carried out numerous experiments that were used to prove its validity. Behaviourism, though, also has definite limitations. For example, it tends to underestimate the extent to which human behaviour is complex. It does not address the influence of an individual’s personality on his or her behaviour. In addition, all experiments which have, in the past, been conducted to determine the extent to which the environment affects people’s behaviours, have been carried out on animals. This means that scholars have not determined the extent to which people’s behaviour is shaped by their surroundings. According to Sheeran, Aubrey, and Kellett (2007) human behaviour is far more complicated than animal behaviour. Behaviourism can also not be used to explain certain realities in human society such as the development of language. According to Buller (2005), it cannot be assumed that behaviourism is the only reason for the development of aggression. It is an established fact that there are people who have personalities that tend to support the development of aggressive tendencies. The theory of behaviourism has a different understanding of the genesis of emotional such as aggression, depression, and social phobias. This theory contends that these emotions can also be acquired by means of learning processes. The behaviourist, John B. Watson contended that peoples bad and good behaviours could be clarified through the examination of their learning experiences (Barrett and Kurzban 2006). Watson, along with other behaviourists such as E. L. Thorndike contended that a behaviour could be acquired if positive consequences were attached to it. However, if there were negative consequences associated with the behaviour in question, it would be weakened. Application of Cognitive Psychology, and its Strengths and Weaknesses The strengths of the cognitive psychology model are many. According to Hollon, Stewart, and Strunk (2006) the cognitive psychology model is the most researched theory in the field of psychology. The cognitive model is also considered as having the best treatment practice. Therapies centred on the cognitive model can be easily carried out, and bring considerable changes to the lives of many people. The cognitive model, though, also has a number of limitations. In the first place, it does not address the realities that mental issues such as depression can result from other concepts such as behaviourism. For example, if children are born and brought up in a depressive atmosphere in which both parents continuously argue or fight owing to the lack of proper mechanisms to cope with stress, it is more likely that they will manifest the same symptoms upon reaching adulthood. Another limitation has to do with the determination of the true function of cognitive processes. According to Hollon, Stewart, and Strunk (2006), it has not yet been professionally established whether faulty cognitive processes result from psychopathology or cause it. The cognitive psychology model tends to stress on the role played by faulty thinking in determining the incidence of depression, aggression, and phobias. This means that the way in which a person processes information and responds to it could be defective, and result in emotional problems. According to Comer (2005) the brain is equipped to be able to sort out all incoming stimuli and determine the kind of information to preserve or even dispose of. However, there are cases where a person may have too much stimuli, which impedes the process of information processing. This state of affairs then results in mental problems such as irrational beliefs, illogical errors, and the habit of over-generalising different issues. Cognitive behavioural theorists such as Aaron Beck have in the past proposed that behavioural problems such as aggressions and depression emerge owing to the existence of distorted judgments and thoughts, or even the absence of the relevant coping skills. According to Ryan, La Guardia, and Solky-Butzel (2005), the cognitive theory supports the notion that aggressive, or depressed individuals have different thinking patterns from the rest of the ordinary population. For example, they may perceive their life situations and potentials in negative ways. Owing to this fact, they often misinterpret facts in a way that forces them to take most of the blame. Their negative thinking patterns compel aggressive individuals to believe that existing situations are worse than they actually are, and this then makes them even more defensive and hard to live with. Application of Humanist Psychology, and its Strengths and Weaknesses In regards to strengths, the humanistic psychology model has had a considerable impact on human development activities as well as psychotherapies. For example, humanism has influenced the flourishing development of the feminist movement, holistic health care, and other aspects of societal transformation since the 60s. This model is also credited with encouraging pre-occupations with concepts regarding the attainment of self-actualisation and self-esteem. Some of the therapies that have been developed under the humanistic psychology model include bioenergetics, the Feldenkreis Method, rational-emotive therapy, encounter therapy, the conjoint family therapy, and the reality therapy. The humanist theory has a number of limitations. In the first place, because the humanist approach only seeks to address the underlying issues when examining the cause of the development of certain behaviours, it often neglects to directly confront more visible concerns. The humanist theory tends to disregard the significance of biology, or more physical aspects in determining how behaviour is developed. According to Barrett and Kurzban (2006), the humanist theory contends that psychological issues like phobias, depression, and aggression, materialise owing to the inhibited ability to implement meaningful decisions on how best to conduct one’s life. This means that according to humanists, the only way to correct emotional problems is by creating a situation in which the individual in question is brought to a place where they understand the importance of acquiring self-understanding and self-awareness. In regards to emotional issues such as depression and aggression, there are definite reasons why human beings have acquired these traits. According to Vittengl, Clark, and Jarrett (2004) it is presumed that behaviours such as the manifestation of aggressive tendencies developed owing to necessity. The demonstration of compassionate traits is something that increases the probability of an individual’s genes surviving. In the same way, the demonstration of violent tendencies is something that served the early human who were hunters and gatherers. Application of the Evolutionary theory, and its Strengths and Weaknesses The evolutionary theory has a number of limitations. For example, the theory does not adequately explain the existence, to the present day, of behaviours among human beings in all communities around the world, that seem to reduce the chances of a person’s reproductive success. The homosexual orientation, for example, goes against the claims of the evolutionary theory which contends that human beings developed behaviours which would help their chances of existence around the world. Another limitation concerns the absence of irrefutable proof that determines, once and for all, the importance of the evolutionary theory. According to Vittengl, Clark, and Jarrett (2004) any human observed behaviours developed as a result of natural selection. This means that it is only the ancestors that were best able to adapt to their hostile environments that reproduced, and thus ensured the continuation of the human race. The human mind also acquired innate instincts when only the people who had access to the most fertile mates were able to reproduce. This means that in today’s human population, the human mind is furnished with instincts that make it possible for them to reproduce and survive. There is no existing knowledge of a lot of the select pressures that faced the early human beings over the span of millions of years which resulted in the behavioural make-up of the ordinary human being living today. Another limitation deals with the fact that the evolutionary theory does not give evidence about the existence of definite differences between the genders as well as within different species. The biggest strength of the evolutionary theory has to do with the existence of a large amount of evidence that exists. Even though arguments by induction may not be considered as being conclusive, they are still considered as being valid in the scientific field. Application of the Biological theory, and its Strengths and Weaknesses According to Vittengl, Clark, and Jarrett (2004) there are other circumstances in which biological factors actually trigger aggressive impulses. For example, research studies have proved that when the amygdales in animal brains are stimulated, the animals tend to be more aggressive. It has also been proven that, in some species, selective breeding will result in aggressive tendencies can actually be genetically influenced. There are also certain conditions such as low blood sugar which can be able to successively boost aggressiveness. The biological theory, though, has definite limitations. For example, it reduces all human characteristics and functions to physical structures as well as mechanisms which operate in the absence of environmental aspects as well as personality factors. The biological model has a number of strengths. For example, biological reasons have been determined as being the main causes of certain psychological disorders. In regards to schizophrenia, it has been discovered that sufferers tend to have brains with unusual structures. In addition, schizophrenics tend to have higher dopamine levels than other normal individuals. Researchers as well as medical personnel have in the past been able to create different drug treatments based on their findings on studies into the brain’s chemical make-up. The drug, Prozac, for instance, was created after a number of studies on brain chemicals. The biological theory stresses on different causes for the existence of human traits such as aggression, social phobias, and depression. Biological psychologists blame the existence of such characteristics on the existence of chemicals in the brain that affect human behaviours. For example, the existence of higher levels of testosterone in men may make them more aggressive in character than women. According to Barrett and Kurzban (2006) it is a recognised fact that individuals who experience reduced serotonin levels are more likely to be unable to control their own aggressive tendencies. Such findings support the notion that the biological theory on human behaviour is relevant in some circumstances. Conclusion The different theories that are used to explain facets of human behaviour can all be used in different settings. Most scholars concur that it is unlikely that any one theory can be used to explain all facets of human behaviour. The reality is that every model has its own weaknesses and strengths. For example, scientific models such as the cognitive psychology model, and behaviourism, tend to disregard the subjective experiences that human beings in different places experience. The combined use of all of perspectives in different settings assists in acquiring an improved understanding of human behaviour. References Barrett, H.C. & Kurzban, R. (2006) ‘Modularity in cognition: framing the debate’, Psychological Review, vol. 113, pp. 628-647. Buller, D.J. (2005) Adapting minds: evolutionary psychology and the persistent quest for human nature, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Comer, R.J. (2005) Fundamentals of abnormal psychology, Worth Publishers, New York. Hollon, S.D., Stewart, M.O. & Strunk, D. (2006) ‘Enduring effects for cognitive behaviour therapy in the treatment of depression and anxiety’, Annu Rev Psychol., vol. 57, pp. 285–315. Ryan, R.M., La Guardia, J.G. & Solky-Butzel, J. (2005) ‘On the interpersonal regulation of emotions: emotional reliance across gender, relationships, and culture’, Personal Relationships, vol. 12, pp. 146-163. Sheeran, P., Aubrey, R. & Kellett, S. (2007) ‘Increasing attendance for psychotherapy: implementation intentions and the self-regulation of attendance-related negative affect’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 75, pp. 853-863. Vittengl, J.R., Clark, L.A. & Jarrett, R.B. (2004) ‘Improvement in social-interpersonal functioning after cognitive therapy for recurrent depression’, Psychol Med., vol. 34, pp. 643–658. Webb, T.L., Sniehotta, F.F. & Michie, S. (2010) ‘Using theories of behaviour change to inform interventions for addictive behaviours’, Addiction, vol. 105, pp. 1879-1892. West, R. (2006) Theory of addiction, Blackwell, Oxford. Read More