Memory and the Brain: Neural Basis of Attention Processes - Annotated Bibliography Example

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Annotated Bibliography Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Kelley, W. M., Buckner, R. L., Cohen, N. J., Miezin, F.M., Snyder, A. Z., ... Petersen, S. E. (January 01, 2001). Direct comparison prefrontal cortex regions engaged by working and long-term memotasks. Neuroimage, 14, 1, 48-59. This article examines the role played by ventrolateral, dorsolateral, and frontopolar prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions in both working (WM) and long-term memory (LTM). The researchers utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to make a comparison whether the prefrontal cortex (PFC) exhibit activation that can only be realized through one memory domain (Braver et al., 2001). The subjects in the research did the n-back WM task, also known as two-back condition ,and LTM encoding, also known as intentional memorization, as well as the retrieval yes-no recognition tasks. In addition, each of the tasks was carried out using two distinct types of stimulus materials including familiar words and unfamiliar voices to find out the effect of material-type as measured against task-type. In all the experiments, the researchers found that a bilateral region of dorsolateral PFC (DL-PFC; BA 46/9) would be selectively activated at the two-back condition, which confirms the role that is usually hypo synthesized for the region, which is the active maintenance as well as manipulation of information in Working Memory (WM) (Braver et al., 1997). The experiment also found that the left frontopolar PFC denoted as FPPFC was selectively engaged during the two-back, but not by retrieval. The lateralized ventrolateral PFC (VLPFC) was found to be engaged, but selectively by material type and the task-type had no effect in it. Therefore, results in this experiment highlighted the significance of an examination of the PFC activity within several memory domains for the functionally differentiating PFC regions as well as for testing the applicability of memory domain-specific theories. Notes: (1) This study may be important in further examining the activity of the brain in multiple domains.(2) Is it obvious that PFC regions that are task selective show a pattern of selectivity. Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (January 01, 2007). The Nature of Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity: Active Maintenance in Primary Memory and Controlled Search from Secondary Memory. Psychological Review, 114, 1, 104- 132. This article confirms previous studies that show that differences in working memory in persons with low Working Memory Capacities (WMC) have reduced performance on a variety of attention and tasks to be performed through memory as opposed to those with high working memory capacities (Unsworth and Engle, 2007). The conception of this was decided through dynamic attention component and probabilistic cue-dependent search component and an examination of new evidence through prediction of the framework to performance for free recall. The experiment was conducted through the delimitation of cues to delimit the search set, which involved individual and external directed cues and then sampling from the search set through Random-with-replacement criteria. After recovery, a decision was made whether it was correct or incorrect to generate a response. The experiment confirmed that personal differences in working memory capacity (WMC) is due to the ability to maintain information that can be got in primary memory and ability to search for it from secondary memory. This article shows that there are immense benefits of having combined experimental and diffferential program of research in the examination of the basic memory and attention processes in terms of individual differences (Cohen, 1994). The article also corroborate the findings by (Osaka et al., 2003) which have examined individual differences in WMC in a number of tasks assigned to a person. The ideas presented in the article can be used in future for the promotion of an incisive understanding of personal differences amongst persons in memory and attention processes and how they relate to higher order cognition. Notes: (1) Is performance affected by a variety of cognitive domains in different individuals. (2) Would the result been different if the participants for the WMC were not screened for WMC using the automated version of the operation span task ? Braver, T. S., Cohen, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., & Noll, D. C. (January 01, 1997). A parametric study of prefrontal cortex involvement in human working memory. Neuroimage, 5, 1, 49-62. This article is a parametric study of the prefrontal cortex and how it is involved in human working memory as well as an evaluation of the relationship between memory load and PFC activity and their benefits. The researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) to find out the role of the activity of PFC in a sequential letter task in which memory load is varied in a fashion that is increasing. A second experiment using the whole-brain imaging technique was conducted and a comparison made whether the result would be the same as when fMRI was used. İn all the nine subjects that were the focus of the study, the left inferior regions of the PFC as well as the dosolateral region were identified and they showed that there is a linear relationship between the working memory (WM) and the activity. The study further found that all these regions could be identified through a direct correlation of the signal from the functional magnetic imaging resonance (fMRI) with a measure of behavior that ranks working memory function at the time of the performance of the task. İt was also found that the second technique of using the whole-brain technique produced similar results that suggested that there is a distribution of roles that works in conjunction with the PFC to subserve the working memory. The results of this experiment provide a description of the involvement of the PFC and related regions of the brain in work memory function. Notes 1. What if we use a different mode of study other than the parametric study? Osaka, M., Osaka, N., Kondo, H., Morishita, M., Fukuyama, H., Aso, T.,& Shibasaki, H. (2003). The neural basis of individual differences in working memory capacity: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 18, 789–797. This research article finds out the neural basis of individual differences in working memory capacity whereby investigation was conducted using neural substrates. It was performed through Listening-span test (LST), Listen and Remember conditions whereby two subject groups were selected and grouped into those with large working memory capacities denoted as high-span subjects (HSS) and those with small working memory capacities denoted as low span-subjects (LSS). The research found that there was a significant level of activation in three areas as compared to resting control, which includes the left prefrontal cortex (PFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and temporal language area. It was also found that for both of the groups, that is, the HSS and the LSS, the intensity of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) increased in PFC during the listening-span test as compared to the listening condition. A group difference was found in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) region, specifically showing a significant increase in the intensity of the signal amongst the high span subjects (HSS) as compared to the low-span subjects. The information on behavior also showed that the performance would be seen to be better amongst the HSS as compared to the LSS and these results indicate that the system that controls the attention supported by ACC is more effective amongst the HSS as compared to the LSS. Notes (1) What is the effect of working memory capacities in either of the scenarios? Cohen, R. L. (1994). Some thoughts on individual differences and theory construction. Intelligence, 18, 3–13. This research confirmed that short-term memory and working memory, as measured through simple and complex span tasks, are distinct constructs that derive their acts from higher order cognitive abilities. This research work critically evaluated and reviewed research on the comparison of the complex span tasks in experimental studies and the correlation studies. Cohen also conducted a Meta-analysis, re-analyses of important information sets, which suggested that, simple and complex tasks evaluate the same subcomponent processes that may include rehearsal, maintenance, and controlled research amongst other subcomponents. The research also found that the differences were largely dependent on the extent to which the phonological processes are varied and maximized from a list of acts and the importance of the methodological, psychometric as well as implications on assessment of the data proposed on individual differences and theory construction. In this research work, it was also found that individual differences have not become a serious issue despite so much effort put in place to consider the differences in experimental psychology. Notes 1. What is the effect or implication of having shortterm memory and working memory? when measured only through a complex span tasks on the cognitive abilities of an individual 2. What if the simple complex plan is utilized? References Braver, T. S., Cohen, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., & Noll, D. C. (January 01, 1997). A parametric study of prefrontal cortex involvement in human working memory. Neuroimage, 5, 1, 49-62. Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Kelley, W. M., Buckner, R. L., Cohen, N. J., Miezin, F. M., Snyder, A. Z., ... Petersen, S. E. (January 01, 2001). Direct comparison of prefrontal cortex regions engaged by working and long-term memory tasks. Neuroimage, 14, 1, 48-59. Cohen, R. L. (1994). Some thoughts on individual differences and theory construction. Intelligence, 18, 3–13. Osaka, M., Osaka, N., Kondo, H., Morishita, M., Fukuyama, H., Aso, T.,& Shibasaki, H. (2003). The neural basis of individual differences in working memory capacity: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 18, 789–797 Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (January 01, 2007). The Nature of Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity: Active Maintenance in Primary Memory and Controlled Search from Secondary Memory. Psychological Review, 114, 1, 104-132. Read More