Two Theorists on Psychonautics - Coursework Example

TWO THEORISTS ON PSYCHONAUTICS s s School`s of School`s Introduction Psychonautics is the study of consciousness and unconsciousness; its coordination and how to transform it (Freud, 1915). It is made up of two words Psycho and Nautics, former means brain or soul and the other means navigation. Hence, it is study of brain`s coordination, navigation and how to transform it. Psychonauts is an element in psychology, which is the study of identifying, understanding, and predicting behaviour. Psychonautics strives to analyze how brain and soul communicates to the outer world and its adaptation to changes in behaviours. This article covers two theorists who believed in the power of mind and its effect on overall physical behaviour. They explored the power of imagination, fantasy, dreams, and overall unconscious happenings that affects one’s growth (Freud, 1955). Many psychonauts have worked as people who help others solve their behaviours problems and as well develop them. Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson are two scholars and psychonauts who have made a great impact in this field. Freud believed that symptoms have to have causes (Thornton, 2005). This article covers the two people whose work still cause waves in the field of philosophy and psychology. Sigmund Freud He was born in 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia as first child of Jacob and Amalia. When he was four, his parents moved to Vienna where he stayed until 1937. He studied medicine in the field of neurology and was crowned with a medical degree in 1881. He later married Martha who was from a Jew parents and she did not practice Jewish. His work was incredibly influential in ages and ages. Some of which included the conscious and Unconscious mind, The Id, Ego, and Superego, Defence Mechanisms, life and Death Instincts, and Psychosexual Development (Hall, 1999). Unconscious Mind Freud believed that symptoms had causes and they do not have obvious conscious causes. He insisted that the cause of any behaviour was hidden somewhere else which he termed ‘The unconscious’ (Thornton, 2005). From this perspective, he concluded that Psyche (mind) is more conscious kingdom but also has larger unconscious (Freud, 1915). 1. Instincts Sigmund stated that human beings are driven by instincts, which are buried in the unconscious part of the brain (Freud, 1915). He divided them into two broad categories, Eros (life instincts) covering self-preserving and erotic instincts and Thanatos (death instincts) covering all instincts toward aggression, cruelty and aggression (Ridgway, 2007). The death instincts originate from urge to destroy the source of all sexual energy by extermination of the self. He gave the sexual drive a central point in human life; he generalized sexual instinct as the body pleasure the motivation force in a human being life (Thornton, 2005) 2. Trauma Some things happened in the past that has caused a trauma in a person unconscious mind, which may cause psychological problems that a person is having. In order to heal the problem, Freud emphasizes that the trauma has to be brought in the conscious part. The conscious and unconscious parts are always in conflict and the former will resist attempts to throw the ball to its side because of the pain attached to the original trauma (Hall, 1999). People believe that they control their actions through will but Freud had different view on this; he believed that unseen forces, which are in the unconscious part, control our behaviours (Freud, 1915). He believed that most personalities lie in the invisible part, which can only be seen by going into depths. However, the unconscious traits are not witnessed easily and if they are not revealed in consciousness healing can be disastrous. Elements of His Theories a. Dreams It is interesting how Freud described dreams (Freud, 1955). He termed them as an important tool in his therapy sessions, and he believed that they were expressions of wish fulfilment and language of unconscious or the royal road to unconscious (Stafford-Clark, 1965). The dreams revealed the inner secret desires that anyone may want to disclose to anyone or not especially if it is of sexual nature. He knew that dreams are not given in a clear form and this he termed as the manifest content of the dream (Stafford-Clark, 1965). This theory about dreams has ever received sharp criticism especially the assumption that they were expressions of wish fulfilment even to an extent of him stating that repetitive nightmares may not be wish fulfilment but post-trauma stress disorder (Ridgway, 2007). b. Id, Ego, Superego Freud had the assumption that human beings are always in the move to attain goals of survival and reproduction and to meet them he believes they are revealed in thirst, avoiding pain and sex, and hunger (Boeree, 1997). We are born as centres of unconscious desire always in urge of being satisfied and having pleasure (Freud, 1915). He termed the conscious centre as Id, which operates on pleasure principles. For example, I like, I want it, am going to get it etc. however this parts realizes that it has to cope with the demands of the world and desires to protects itself by adapting to what the world want generating a conscious Ego. This part acts to protect a person by deliberating on the rules of the world and pleasures that Id has. For example, when the Id has an urge of ‘am going to get that’ the Ego resist by saying ‘it’s going to lead you to trouble. Superego appears at the age of 5 (Hall, 1954), this part is judgemental to Id that its pleasures are morally bad and dangerous. Ego is the mediator between Id and Superego and it regulates the exchanges between them so that the person achieves reasonably. c. Stages of Human Growth He believed that a person goes through a number of psycho-sexual stages from childhood to adulthood and when one misses a point in any stage can be stuck for the rest of their lives. They included; Oral stage, Anal stage, Phallic Stage, Latency stage, and Genital Stage. Oral stage is the first, which is evident in children in their first year, everything is cantered in the mouth, and they put everything in the mouths. Anal stage is the second stage which is in the bracket of 1 and 3 years, it focuses on anus and its products. Children in this stage endeavour to gain control over their excretory functions. Phallic Stage kicks off at the age of 3-5 years, it focuses on sexual activity, and boys have the desire to be with their mother and girls to their fathers. This happens for the boys to learn what it takes to be a father and girls to be a mother, failure to go through this stage well result in people being attracted to women and men who are replica of their parents. Latency stage is the third in the bracket of 6 and 12 years, children are more social and develop the urge to make same and cross sex friendships. Genital stage comes in during adolescence and above and its where attraction between opposite sex is more evident. People at this stage have the urge to practice sexuality; sexual, libidinal, hedonistic desire was part of this stage (Ridgway, 2007). d. Anxiety In the struggles of facing reality, survival forces and our desires, people seeks to avoid anxiety this is unpleasant. Anxiety always warns the Ego part that things are not in the right direction, he identified 3 types of anxiety; Neurotic, moral and reality anxiety. Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will not control the Id’s desires. Moral anxiety comprises of fear of going against one’s own moral principle, and reality anxiety is fear of real world events e.g. Heights, snake bites depth and the remedy is avoiding the object. Defence Mechanisms Due to anxieties, Ego creates defence mechanisms to avoid them; all mechanisms may be immoral and unhealthy and still helps one cope with realities. Some of those mechanisms include; denial which is the most common one, people fail to admit obvious truth which seems to put them down before people, it endeavours to protect ego from things that it cannot cope with though it is energy consuming. The most common denial exercise is addiction, which many people takes it a problematic and fails to admit they are seriously under the influence of substance or alcohol. Repression is also a defence mechanism, which strives to keep information out of conscious awareness. Though the memories may be kept under cover, they may not disappear fully and may influence our future behaviours. Displacement is a defence mechanism, which people use to relieve their stresses on other people. When people are frustrated by situations, they take them harder on their friends or family and they are termed as displacing them (Thornton, 2005). Sublimation is a defence mechanism, which gives a person freedom to convert behaviour to a more acceptable way. For example, a person with anger may decide taking up kickboxing as a means of venting frustration. Projection involves taking our undesired behaviours from us and projecting them to someone else, for example, when you hate someone you may decide to assume that they hate you too. Sigmund theories and believes of conscious and unconscious behaviours have received sharp criticism from scholars some saying they are questionable. Notably, believe exists that dreams originate from our strong will, which may not encompass the origin of nightmares. Erik Erickson He was born in Frankfurt, Germany on June 1902; he was regarded as his mother’s child. His mother raised him before meeting his stepfather Dr. Theodor Homberger. The truth about his real father was hidden from him, which left him confused and gave him an experience, which acted as the hallmark for his greatest theory of personality. His other work included stages of human development, which involved the conscious, unconscious, and physical worlds. Erikson’s theory takes Freudian thought farther because it includes social and cultural influences. Erikson believes that the ego develops individually through its biological (psychosexual) processes, but also due to interpersonal concerns and relationships (psychosocial.) Erikson actually thought the prime motivation for development was social- the internal drive to interact with others. Erikson’s theory deeply reflects his own struggle for development of an individuated personality, because of his confused, bicultural background. His mother was Jewish and Danish and Erikson had the fair characteristics of the Nordic people. His stepfather was Jewish, and Erikson thought he was his natural father until later in his development. Epigenetic Principle is the idea, recognized in biological development and easily seen in the foetus, that there is a plan to our development and according to this plan, parts develop in a particular order, and not until all the parts develop fully does the individual become a functioning whole. So, according to the stage theory, we must all follow a framework of development through the 8 stages, and there is a particular focus and area of development at each stage. If a stage is imperfectly resolved, there will be later handicaps. Different social aspects defined eight psychosocial stages in each stage. His first stages correspond to Freud’s but the last ones are more encompassing of adult development. There is an ego strength (Virtue) developed in each stage. Each stage involves a crisis with conflict centred on a particular issue. The virtue developed becomes part of one’s ego skills. There is an opposite form of the virtue if the ego strength is poorly developed. Early development paves the way for later developments, although there can be rehabilitation later in life within positive relationships. Significant others are important at each stage, so intergenerational relationships are important for aiding younger people to develop and helping older people to feel vital and useful late in life. The individual’s development can also impact social/cultural development, too, (Hitler’s impact on Europe vs. Nelson Mandela’s impact in South Africa.) Erikson’s Stages of Development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Basic trust is the sense that others are dependable and will nurture and provide for you, as well as the sense that one is worthy of care, and inherently trustworthy, It is based in good, appropriate, responsive parenting. The baby is busy soaking up the stimulation available- food, sensory stimulation- and actively assimilates these experiences into a picture of self and the world. This is an interactive stage, as the baby tries to explore and get the parent to pay attention. If the world is not responsive to the baby’s needs, s/he develops a sense of mistrust. Some mistrust is useful, as complete naiveté or gullibility puts a person at risk. In a healthy resolution, there is more trust than mistrust however, allowing the person to connect with others and trust them. The virtue developed is Hope. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame, Doubt During the second year of life, the toddler develops a sense of autonomy and self-control, due in part to toilet training and motor development, walking and climbing. The psychological issue is broader, though, including the concepts of holding on and letting go. Adults that support toddlers’ exploration and protect them from their vulnerability build in a sense of personal control. The over-protected or shamed by their experiences or parents’ discipline develop a sense of doubt in their efforts at independence. Autonomy should prevail in a healthy development, but some shame and doubt enable moral development and safety awareness. The virtue developed is Will (determination). 3. Initiative vs. Guilt From 4 – 5 years old children learn what kind of person to be, based on identification with parents (Freud’s Oedipal complex and gender identity development) Children are interested in sexuality and sex differences and are developing a conscience (superego). They are curious and their explorations may be intrusive on others. Their play may reflect this curiosity. Nevertheless, the challenge is to develop some sense of initiative in exploring the world. If this curiosity is shamed, the child develops a sense of guilt. The virtue developed is Purpose (principle). 4. Industry vs. Inferiority School develops a sense of industry, learning to win recognition from producing things. Without a healthy development of this skill, the child develops feelings of inferiority. Teachers and coaches are vital in encouraging persistence on task and valuing the products of children. The virtue developed is competence. 5. Identity vs. Identity Diffusion During adolescence, the teen tries to develop a separate sense of identity from parents and others. Ego identity is the awareness of one’s own individuality, as well as continuity in one’s meaning for others. The question is “Who am I?” Personal identity will develop past identifying with role models, as the teen must develop his/her life story, encompassing his values. Identity confusion happens if a teen cannot develop a coherent sense of identity. Negative Identity develops if a teen develops an identity based on negative role models, criminals, slackers, etc (Im Coyne, 2013). This is particularly a risk id juvenile delinquents are housed with hardened criminals to better learn the criminal lifestyle and value. Identity foreclosure occurs if a teen chooses an identity commitment too quickly without independent thought. Moratorium is the period in adolescence when teens actively explore all the career and values possibilities. It makes commitment to a values system more meaningful. The virtue of this stage is fidelity (trustworthiness), the ability to commit to a loyalty promised. This does not only apply to marriage, but various areas of adult personal responsibility. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Erikson believed that until identity is firmly established, it is not possible to develop true psychological intimacy with another person, once identity is set, though; it is possible to choose fusion with another without fear of loss of self (Leichsenring, and Rabung, 2011). Distantiation is a term Erikson used as the counterpart to intimacy- the willingness to isolate from others or destroy any who seem dangerous to one’s self. These people often remain isolated and self-absorbed, even if they go through a number of relationships on the surface (Donald Trump comes to mind.) Marriage may resolve this crisis, but it doesn’t necessarily. People can also develop intimacy with others than spouse. The virtue of this stage is love (be devoted to). 7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption Generativity is the interest in establishing and guiding the next generation. These people mentor youth, train others at work, develop social institutions that benefit others, as well as develop tolerance for others who hold different ideas. It may simply be expressed in parenting, but does not require becoming a parent to develop. Stagnation is the negative resolution of this stage, with the person not able to be involved in caring for another. The virtue of this stage is Care. 8. Integrity vs. Despair Old age is about making sense of one’s life. To develop integrity means you feel your life has been meaningful and you do not feel regrets about your life choices. Despair is the experience of regret, blame, and feeling fear and resistance to the process of death. The virtue of this stage is Wisdom. Conclusion The two theorists on psychonautics have achieved what they wanted to pass across concerning conscious and unconscious human development. Erikson was more of developing and improving Freud’s work e.g. in the theory of development, He involved the social and cultural aspects of human being development which was different from what Freud termed as self-navigation of mind and the outside world. He tried to bring out the effect of environment on human behaviour for example a child learning to trust the people around them through observing what is done to them. Freud perspective of dreams was the most criticized because he concluded that they can only come from our strong will that we only have in unconscious mind and he did not give it a second thought that some dreams predict what may come. However, their contribution to explain human conscious behaviour and unconscious cannot be overlooked because it has also helped in solving some behaviours and helping people who are stuck in their gradual development (Freud, 1955). Their theories and believes as psychologists will remain in the public domain and most will either be embraced or criticized in which through this they will be improved to more understandable segments of psychonautics. References Boeree, C. G. W., 1997, Sigmund Freud. Personality theories [Online] Available at < http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/freud.html > (7 December 2013) Hall, Calvin, S., 1999, A primer of Freudman psychology. USA, Plume Publishers Erik Erikson, 2006, In The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. 6 February [Online] Available at < http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/erik.htm > (7 December 2013) Freud S (1955), The Interpretation of Dreams, IV and V, Hogarth Press, Freud S (1915), The Unconscious XIV, Hogarth Press, Hall, C. S. (1954). A primer of Freudian Psychology: Freud’s great discoveries on human behaviour. New York. Leichsenring, Falk and Rabung, Sven (2011). "Long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy in complex mental disorders: update of a meta-analysis”. The British Journal of Psychiatry. [Online] Available at < http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/199/1/15.abstract?sid=b6b30a50-d5e1-431b-925c-960f94909e68 > (7 December 2013) Im Coyne. 2013. "Is Long-Kazlev, A. Freud’s view of human mind: The mental iceberg. 6 February [Online] Available at < http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L8-3TopographyMindIceberg.html > (7 December 2013) Szasz, T., 1990. Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus’s criticism of psychoanalysis and psychiatry. Syracuse University Press, NY, New York Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Worthwhile?". Psychology Today. 9 May [Online] Available at < http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-skeptical-sleuth/201201/is-long-term-psychodynamic-psychotherapy-worthwhile > (7 December 2013) Read More