Identity Formation in Adopted Adolescents: Challenges and Concerns - Literature review Example

Human Development Identity Formation in Adopted Adolescents: Challenges and Concerns April Burchett South Identity Formation in Adopted Adolescents: Challenges and Concerns One of the main tasks of adolescence described by Erikson is the process of identity formation. Erikson believed that psychological, biological, social and historical factors all contributed to the process of identify development equally. The interplay of these factors influences the way in which an individual shapes the narrative of his/her life (Kroger, 2008). Different theorists have explained identity development using one or more of these factors; and although the theories differ to some extent the role of history, context and social interaction have been emphasized by most (Kroger). All adolescents face a number of challenges in the process of developing a cohesive identity (Papalia, Wendkos-Olds & Duskin-Feldman, 2006); but some groups are more likely than others to experience significant challenges (Kroger, 2007). One such group is of adopted children who often have limited or no access to their biological histories and exists in a minority in the society (Grotevant, Dunbar, Kohler & Lash Esau, 2000). Adopted adolescents form a significant percentage of those referred for help which may be considered as indicative of the fact that they are more likely to be faced with difficulties in developing a cohesive identity and may also be at risk for other emotional issues (Smit, 2002). Through this paper the author shall attempt to understand the factors that contribute to the particular challenges faced by adopted children, and also tries to understand the implications of these challenges for the adolescent. While adoption itself is largely considered a positive phenomenon, its inherent characteristics of separating from one family to join another may be responsible for the distress that is faced in particular by adopted adolescents (Smit). In order to develop effective strategies to reduce this distress, it is important to understand the way various factors contribute to the experience of distress. Literature Review Circumstances of adoption Adopted children comprise about 2% of all children in the United States of America (Smit, 2002). While these children share most of the experiences and challenges faced by the average child, their status of being adopted could pay a role in the way they view themselves. While previously people tried to keep adoptions invisible by adopting children who looked similar to the adoptive parents, they are now progressively becoming more and more visible (Grotevant et al., 2000). Increasingly, people are adopting children from different racial backgrounds, and as a result the adoptive status of these children is becoming more visible. Children are also being adopted into gay and lesbian relationships and by single parents, both male and female (Grotevant et al.). A significant number of adopted children arrive in the United States from other countries each year; and these children are often adopted by families of Caucasian origin. This adds to the number of interracial adoptions (Grotevant et al.). Children of minority groups who are adopted into Caucasian families may feel different from their adoptive families, particularly when they receive feedback from social experiences that they are ‘different’. Such experiences can interfere in the development of a healthy acculturated identity during adolescence (Friedlander, 1999). While the trend is moving towards progressively open adoptions where the adoptive parents’ have some knowledge about the birth parent(s) and their circumstances (Grotevant et al., 2000); a number of adoptions are still closed adoptions. In closed adoptions, there is no information about the birth parents shared with the adoptive family; and it is difficult if not impossible for the child to acquire any knowledge about his/her biological history. Often, international adoptions limit the information available about the birth parents as well. Research has verified that information about the birth parents forms an important part of the way in which adolescents construct their personal histories; and the lack of such information in a closed adoption can create challenges for the adolescent (Grotevant et al.). Special challenges Adoptive parents try their best to ensure that an adopted child has the same opportunities and love that a biological child would have. But in spite of their care, there are some challenges that an adopted child has to cope with in the process of making sense of their adopted status. One of the central issues according to Smit (2002) is of ‘loss’. As the child develops an understanding of what it means to be adopted, it is possible that he/she may experience grief, rejection, anger and insecurity as they try to cope with their adoption (Smit). It is possible that the child may initially experience denial or anxiety which leads into an exploration phase. The meaning that the child derives through this exploration phase becomes a part of how they view themselves (Korger, 2007). This cycle may occur many times during the child’s development; particularly when they are faced with new information or experiences that relate to their adoptive status (Korger). The adequate resolution of these explorations in childhood is important for the child to develop a healthy self image during adolescence. Parental involvement and guidance can reassure the child during the process of coping with these challenges, and can reduce the insecurity and isolations that the child may experience (Smit). Most adopted children have little or no information about the circumstances that led to their being adopted. They may also have no knowledge about their biological parents; and as a consequence may experience a loss of history (Grotevant et al., 2000; Smit, 2002). Many adopted children, particularly those adopted internationally may know nothing about their birth-parents including what they looked like, what their circumstances were, and why they gave up their child for adoption. Such children may feel that a significant part of their personal history is missing and this may interfere in their ability to understand who they are and where they come from (Smit). Erikson and other researcher have described the importance of history in the process of identity development (Korger, 2008). It may be that adopted children experience more trouble in developing a sense of who they are due to the lack of such knowledge. Interracial adoptees also face a unique challenge as they begin to develop a sense of racial identity and group membership (Friedlander, 1999). Although as young children they easily relate themselves to their adoptive parents’ racial identity, as they grow into adolescence, they become less certain, as they begin to appreciate the complexity of their situation (Friedlander). Many such children can become confused about their identities and may feel the need to develop a relationship with their birth heritage. These issues have been seen across racial backgrounds of parents and children (Grotevant et al., 2000; Friedlander). When parents provide a chance to explore both the birth and adoptive heritages while assuring the adolescent of their involvement and support, the adolescent is more likely to be able to develop a healthy and acculturated identity as compared to adolescents who are not encouraged to include explorations of their birth heritage (Friedlander). Another issue faced by adopted children is related to how people view adoption in society. Adopted children may be affected by these notions; particularly when they are unable to address their anxieties (Grotevant et al., 2000). A significant proportion of people believe that biological children must be more desirable to adopted ones; and that it is difficult to love a biological and an adopted child the same way (Grotevant et al.). Adopted children have less to share about the way they are related to their families; and so may feel isolated more easily. Interracial adoptees are more likely to experience teasing or isolation from peers, and may be more confused about who they are as a consequence. These and other similar factors can inhibit the development of identity during adolescence. Studies like the one by Sica (2009) show that adolescents who come from at risk backgrounds are more likely to develop negative images of their possible self, and that they may be inhibited in exploring positive possibilities of who they are and who they could be. The challenges faced by adopted children are often reflected in lower self esteem and self image, making these adolescents at risk for such negative images of themselves. This may explain part of why adopted adolescents have more trouble developing a healthy and positive self image. Role of communication It is evident that adoptive children have to cope with special issues, and it becomes necessary to understand how these adolescents can be helped and supported in this process by parents and other family members. Rueter and Koerner (2008) have demonstrated that adopted children raised with an interaction orientation to communication showed better adjustment than adopted children raised with a conformity orientation. Interaction orientation not only provides the adolescent with opportunities to voice their concerns and ask questions, but also allows them to develop some sense of ownership over the narrative of their life experiences (Rueter & Koerner). Friedlander (1999) shows the value of parental involvement and interaction in the development of an identity in the case of interracial adoptees. Adolescents who are able to resolve issues related to race and heritage in a supportive environment are better able to cope with discrimination and other negative issues and also develop more positive self images. Open and honest communication about the adoptive status of a child seems to help the child feel more secure than when parents try to protect them or deny the importance of issues related to the adoption (Friedlander). Adopted children who feel distant from their adoptive families are more likely to be preoccupied with their adopted status and with their biological parents (Kohler, Grotevant & McRoy, 2002). Although these adolescents believe that they communicate as much as others with their families, Kohler, Grotevant and McRoy believe that these adolescents may lack meaningful interactions, and thus experience alienation easily. Although biological children are also found to experience some alienation from their families during adolescence; they are less likely to question their membership to the family. Meaningful conversation about the adoption could provide the adolescent with chances to voice their concerns and questions about their birth parents and help them achieve some form of closure (Friedlander, 1999; Smit, 2002). Discussion Based on the reviewed literature, it is evident that despite the best efforts of the adoptive parents, an adopted child will experience particular challenges that arise from the ‘adoptive’ status. These issues stem from the fact of the adoption and are rarely a reflection of the parents’ attention towards the child. In part, this could be because of the high cultural premium placed on biological relationships (Grotevant et al., 2000) – a fact that undermines the relationship adopted children share with their adoptive parents and emphasizes the one they share with their birth parents. Although adopted children are more likely to be seen in therapeutic settings, this may be attributed to the fact that these children face unique challenges that are often not understood by their family and peers (Smit, 2002). Thus, these adolescents are ill-equipped to resolve these issues on their own. Rather than trying to avoid these issues, parents need to help the adolescent face them and resolve them to move towards a healthy identity (Rueter & Koerner, 2008). Adolescents have a more sophisticated understanding of the dynamics of being adopted than younger children (Papalia, Wendkos-Olds & Duskin-Feldman, 2006); and they are able to understand the choices and challenges faced by their birth parents. As a consequence, they may have questions that may seem ungrateful or hurtful at times, but are important to their understanding of their own histories. Often, these attempts are simply a means of developing their adoptive identity, and of achieving closure with their past. Adopted adolescents have to integrate not only the experiences they share with their adoptive parents into their personal identity; they also have to integrate a narrative about their birth, and adoption as well as the heritage they share with their birth parents (Grotevant et al., 2000). Where information about the birth parents is scare or missing, an adolescent may have trouble in establishing continuity from a biological and social heritage to their personal identities (Kroger, 2007). On the other hand, these individuals also need to differentiate themselves from both their adoptive parents and birth parents (Smit, 2002). Adolescents use information about similarities and differences shared with family members to develop their understanding of self. When there is no information available about the birth parents, it becomes difficult for the adolescent to identify similarities and differences, leading to open questions that may never be answered. Adopted children are not able to relate their physical characteristics and mannerisms to family members the way biological children are able to. This lack of shared history makes them feel different from their family; an experience that may be heightened through the teasing that is part of adolescent peer relations (Kroger, 2007). Although the adolescent is relatively independent of the parents, he/she still relies on them for support and needs to feel connected to them (Papalia, Wendkos-Olds & Duskin-Feldman, 2006). The natural distance that comes between parents and children as they grow into adolescence may be interpreted by the adopted adolescent as a sign that he/she does not ‘truly’ belong, causing them to feel alienated and insecure. These insecurities may explain why adopted adolescents find it more difficult to form and sustain secure relationships (Smit, 2002), since the template for secure relationships is based on the relationship shared with family. Parents need to understand these issues and help their children develop secure relationships within which they can explore concerns (Rueter & Koerner, 2008), including the ones related to adoption. The path to helping the adopted adolescent develop a healthy sense of self starts in their childhood where parents need to acknowledge the fears and questions that the child may have regarding their adoption honestly. Resolution of concerns that come up during early and middle childhood can create a secure base for the exploration and resolution of adolescent issues (Smit, 2002). Encouraging discussion about the adoption at different stages can help the parent to identify the fears and losses that the child experiences and thus to address them. Parents who acknowledge the importance of these fears can reassure their child of the permanence of the relationship they share as well as help to promote the development of a trusting and secure bond that the adopted child can use as a base from where he/she can explore their identity. Healthy communication and prompt attention to the concerns relating to adoption can not only minimize the impact of these issues on identity formation, but can also help promote the development of a healthy, integrated identity. Conclusion Adopted children face special challenges regardless of how supportive and loving their adoptive families are. These issues arise from the facts related to their adoption, and as adolescents these children may be faced with a number of questions about their origin that can threaten to inhibit the process of identity development. While these challenges are distressful, they are not pathological in nature; but are particular to individuals who are trying to make sense of different histories and trying to develop a cohesive narrative that explains all the facts and experiences in their lives. Parents and significant others can help by providing an interactive and supportive communication that encourages the exploration of different possible personalities and identities so that the adopted adolescent does not feel isolated. Successful resolution of these issues leads to the development of a cohesive, acculturated identity that can form the basis for adult choices and relationships. References Friedlander, M.L. (1999). Ethnic identity development of internationally adopted children and adolescents: Implications for family therapists. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 25(1), 43 – 60. Grotevant, H.D., Dunbar, N., Kohler, J.K. & Lash Esau, A.M. (2000). Adoptive identity: How contexts within and beyond the family shape developmental pathways. Family Relations, 49(4), 379 – 387. Kohler, J.K., Grotevant, H.D. & McRoy, R.G. (2002). Adopted adolescents preoccupation with adoption: The impact on adoptive family relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(1), 93 – 104. Kroger, J. (2007). Identity development: Adolescence through adulthood (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Kroger, J. (2008). Identity development during adolescence. In Adams, G.R. &  Berzonsky M. (Ed.s). Blackwell handbook of adolescence (Vol. 8 of Blackwell handbooks of developmental psychology). 205 – 226. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Papalia, D. E., Wendkos-Olds, S. & Duskin-Feldman, R. (2006). A childs world: Infancy through adolescence (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Rueter, M.A. & Koerner, A.F. (2008). The effect of family communication patterns on adopted adolescent adjustment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(3), 715 – 727. Sica, L.S. (2009). Adolescents in different contexts: The exploration of identity through possible selves. Cognition, brain, behavior: An interdisciplinary journal, 8(3), 221-252. Smit, E.M. (2002). Adopted children: Core issues and unique challenges. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 15(4), 143 – 150. Read More