Educational Psychology - Research Proposal Example

1. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is different from other branches of psychology for one main reason, that is, it is focused on the main stream psychology but with an added dimension of special education. (Educational Psychology, 301) Therefore, the focus is on learning and teaching, on special educational and exceptional needs. Other fields of psychology do not analyze the exceptional individual to the same degree as educational psychology. Some of the basic ideas of this field include development of the child which may be categorized into ‘early childhood, school age and adolescent as well as aging (Educational Psychology, 299). Thus, some of the theorists that are specific to educational psychology comprise Thorndike, Hall, Dewey and Siegler to name a few. In educational psychology the scientific method is used in research because it is the sole means by which objective data can be gathered in this field. The scientific method is a systematic and thorough approach in which research can be conducted. It involves the following steps: asking questions, doing background research, constructing hypothesis, testing with an experiment, analyzing results, drawing conclusions and reporting results. The researcher is required to construct another hypothesis if the tested hypothesis was found to be false or partially true. The scientific method is used in both qualitative and quantitative research. The quantitative method is used in cases where the sample can be manipulated. However, the qualitative is used for experiments where the subjects cannot be manipulated and the researcher would attain more ethical results if the sample remained as close to the natural setting as possible. 3. Language development Language development begins from the womb. The fetus from sixteen weeks is able to recognize the voice of its mother. Therefore researchers believe that the degree of effort the mother puts into communication is directly related to the extent of the child’s language development. Thus, early language development is fostered firstly by the level of communication the mother asserts with the child. This constant hearing of the spoken language acts as a foundation from which the child can base the entire building block of language development. Not only would the communication from the mother motivate the child to want to learn language but also the communication of other adults plays an important role in the language development. Adults who interact with infants and young children are in fact laying a foundation for the eventual language component of the child. A handicap in the area of audio functioning may result in hindrances to the child’s language development. As a result it is necessary for parents to conduct a thorough examination of the child’s hearing and speaking organs early in life. 4. Cognitive development theories Jean Piaget proposed that children develop in stages. He posited four stages, namely, pre-operational, The child developed cognitively in a linear form and must accomplish each stage before moving on to another stage, Other theorists disagreed with Piaget and suggested that cognitive development was not linear and static but rather dynamic, The child may move from one stage to the next, not in a systematic way but a dynamic, that is back and forth and around. Vygotsky is one of these theorists and he assumed that cognitive development did not require stages but the child developed naturally and it was in the hand of the teacher to bring out this natural ability to think. Hence, Vygotsky’s major input involved zone of proximal and scaffolding. In the classroom the teacher can utilize both theorists to promote optimal learning. 5. Disorders and disabilities Students may exhibit learning, behavioral, emotional and physical disabilities and disorders. In terms of learning disorders a child may present with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and other types of difficulties. A gifted child is one who has an above average capacity in either academic or physical prowess. Teachers can address these disabilities and disorders by firstly ensuring that they keep au courant with the data that is available on these issues and secondly, teachers must teach to accommodate the individual differences of their students. Therefore, the teacher must remain in close contact with social workers, psychologists and guidance officers within the system to maintain a team effort for the good of the child. Organizations which may assist the teacher in maintaining the well being of all students are geared towards teachers, parents and all stakeholders involved in the life of the student. Below is a listing of some of these organizations. ADHD: Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorders Amputee/Limb Differences - Amputee Coalition of America Angelmans Syndrome. Angelmans Syndrome Foundation Apraxia: Childhood Apraxia of Speech Association of North America Asthma. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Autism: Autism Society of America  Brain Injury: Brain Injury Association Blind/Sight Impaired - American Foundation for the Blind-Midwest Cerebral Palsy: United Cerebral Palsy Associations Cerebral Palsy Cystic Fibrosis: The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Diabetes. American Diabetes Association Ideal National Down Syndrome Society National Down Syndrome Congress Dyslexia. The International Dyslexia Society Epilepsy: Epilepsy Foundation of America Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Community Resource Center Fragile X Syndrome. National Fragile X Foundation Learning Disability - LD online Mental Disabilities: The Arc O.A.S.I.S. Prader-Willi Syndrome. Prader-Willi Syndrome Association Rett Syndrome. International Rett Syndrome Association Sensory Integration. Sensory Integration Resource Center Spina Bifida: Spina Bifida Association of America Spinal Cord Injury: National Spinal Cord Injury Association Williams Syndrome. Williams Syndrome Association   6. Individual Variation 7. Multicultural Education Culturally responsiveness within a classroom refers to the teacher’s ability to reach each student regardless of their specific culture. The teacher in a class with culturally diverse students is able to teach to each student without offending any of the cultures represented within the class. Cultural responsiveness is different to multicultural education in that a teacher within a class that may be culturally diverse of one culture teaches the various values and beliefs of foreign cultures. Thus, the teacher allows the students to be exposed to the various religious practices and customs of specific cultures. This multicultural education caters for the need of the student to understand each other and foreign cultures. In so doing the students would be more accepting and tolerant of each other’s cultures. 8. Gender Differences Researchers have discovered that girls tend to perform better than boys during their teen years. However, the boys then begin to surpass the girls particularly in the science subjects such as engineering and the like. It is believed that boys perhaps have been performing better than girls in these areas for two main reasons. Firstly, boys are taught to use the right side of their brain more than girls who are socialized to use the left side of their brain. Secondly, 9. Approaches to Learning Learning, according to the behaviorist theory, is a change in behavior. On the other hand, the social cognitive approach views learning as a summation of the environmental, family and behavioral factors which are part of an individual. Whereas, change in behavior is the major measure of learning for the behaviorist, the social cognitive approach believes that learning may occur without a change in behavior. Learning may occur from observing the behavior of others. 10. Decreasing undesirable behaviors In order to decrease Andrew’s profane speech I would continuously use different words to repeat what he says and also I would utilize positive and negative reinforcement to encourage him to change his behavior. Therefore, I would provide positive reinforcement for each occasion that Andrew communicates without profanity and I would utilize negative reinforcement by removing one of Andrew’s privileges from him every time he uses profanity. Finally, Andrew’s parents would be asked to step in the picture if Andrew refuses after all other attempts to curb his behavior. The first line of defense for Sandy would be to obtain a private conferencing with Sandy. I would illicit from her the reasons for her negative attitude in class. Perhaps she has learning difficulties and is using her rebuttal as a means of hiding her shortcomings. Therefore, I would offer private lessons for her – myself personally or another tutor who would provide private tutoring for Sandy. Matt appears to be suffering from a perfectionist problem. Therefore, I would praise Matt for the smallest amount of effort he puts into his work. I would also encourage him to appreciate his efforts and so take the time to appreciate and respect for the work of others as well. So, killing Matt with praise and respect should motivate him to share this appreciation and respect with his fellow classmates. Firstly, I would stop my explanation and ask Rebecca to do the explaining. If she is able to explain meticulously, then I would call on her to explain a number of concepts more regularly. If she is unable to explain the concept then she would be asked to be quiet so that others may understand the concept and she herself can learn. If all else fails Rebecca will be placed in a seat away from her classmates. 11. Information-processing approach The information- processing approach claims that human beings learn in the same manner that the computer system operates. Therefore as information is put into the computer and the computer, analogous for our brain processes this information is then put in the form of an output from the computer. Output for the human being is the product of learning. Siegler believes that learning takes place as memory develops. The mechanisms used to remember information are namely, 12. Test and rote memorization Rote memorization has been the major form of assessment type used throughout history. Is this type of assessment popular due to the fact that it is fairly easy to administer in terms of the time taken to correct a multiple choice test is significantly less than the time taken to correct an essay type or short answer question. Is that the man power that is needed to correct an assessment type that involves the student thinking critically is far greater than the man power needed to correct a multiple choice type paper. Indeed these multiple choice pieces are simply put through the computer to obtain results quickly. It is certainly amazing that teachers continue to bemoan the fact that their students are not thinking critically yet they continue to assess their knowledge of the content covered by a mere rote memorization method. Certainly researchers continue to make new discoveries into the value of critical thinking. Teachers must generate their own assessment methods whereby students will be encouraged to think critically. It is only through this type of insistence by the teachers that the student will be able to gain worth and quality learning from the material presented. 13. Critical Thinking Use the article you located for the second assignment for this module. Briefly summarize the article so the class understands the issues presented. Follow the guidelines in the Santrock (2008) text to critically think about the issues presented in the article you chose and discuss your conclusion. Identify the importance of critical thinking for yourself as well as for those in educator and student roles. Critical thinking allows one to understand the material at a deeper level. It removes surface knowledge from a prominent position to the most basal level. Critical thinking allows the individual to engage with the material to the extent that it becomes a part of the individual and so it is now easy for the individual to share the information gained with others. For the educator, critical thinking helps in establishing a high performance level and maintaining that level for one’s students. For the student, the feeling of empowerment that the student gains from engaging in critical thinking about one subject will spill over to the other areas of the student’s life and so allow a greater sense of accomplishment to be gained. This feeling will allow the student to continue to aim for the highest in all aspects of study and hopefully the rest of the student’s life. 14. Transfer Transfer refers to the ability of the student to generalize a concept to other concepts and situations. For example, if a student is able to recognize and read ‘at’ then the student should be able to transfer this knowledge to mat and pat and the like. Transfer is critical to education because without this concept the teacher would have to teach every single concept and situation under the sun. Therefore an ability to apply transfer to other subject areas and real life situations would allow the student to grow at an exponentially greater degree than he/she would be capable of doing without it. Also the teacher can provide some examples and allow the student to utilize this concept to other examples thereby promoting much needed occasion to for the student to think critically. Some means of promoting transfer processing includes inviting students to supply examples and non-examples, likewise in the teacher’s delivery of certain content examples and non-examples should be provided. Thorndike as noted in Lefrançois suggests that teachers should allow students understand the connections among the various ideas they put forth. (Lefrançois 2000 p.130) Another means of promoting transfer would be to encourage the student to conduct experiments thereby allowing the students to explore their own metacognition and to critique and analyze the thoughts of others. One major strategy in which educational curricula can be designed to promote transfer would be to ensure that there is continuity from one level to the next, therefore as the child moves from stage one to stage two the child would recognize that a greater level of generalization is needed to remain au courant with its cohort. In other words there should be a great deal of connection with stage one work in stage two and beyond. In addition, the evaluation methods designed by the curricula should be to promote transfer. 15. Reflecting on social constructivist programs Constructivism was actually mainly utilized in the science subjects. Teachers appear to be more willing to allow students to experiment more in the early and the junior years. However, as I approached senior years and was able to forcefully voice my own opinion teachers appeared to have some misgivings about utilizing constructivism. Perhaps it was because each child construed the concepts differently and the teachers were not willing to spend too much time on one topic? I believe that my early childhood involved mainly scaffolding. It was at this level that I received most of the support from my teachers in learning. (Lefrançois 2000, p. 107) Throughout the junior years cognitive apprenticeship along with cooperative learning was employed. As I got older tutoring and cooperative learning appeared to be the order of the day. Certainly, scaffolding was still employed but not to that great extent as it was in the early years. 16. Cooperative Learning Programs Based on your research, which program did you find utilizes cooperative learning? Describe the program and how it uses such learning. Identify the ways in which cooperative learning is successful in this particular program. Cooperative learning is best if utilized by teachers who understand both the advantages and disadvantages of it. Cooperative learning is a useful tool in the teaching of reading. It is through this method that students are able to assist each other as well as to concretize their knowledge of certain material. Especially in classrooms with ‘diverse learners’ would cooperative learning be helpful (Mastropieri and Scruggs 2005, p. 185.) 17. Expert and pedagogical content knowledge Expert content knowledge refers to an individual having knowledge beyond a mastery knowledge of a subject matter pedagogical content knowledge refers to an individual having the knowledge to teach about a particular subject. Lefrançois defines pedagogical knowledge as ‘knowledge of teaching and learning principles.’(p.23). Hence the major difference between the two is that one has knowledge that can be utilized to further the subject and assist others to understand the concepts that is expert but the pedagogical has the added advantage of having the knowledge to teach others about the concept so that they in turn can teach others. An example of expert knowledge would be a doctor or an engineer having the capacity to perform surgery on the bones or to build a bridge respectively. Pedagogical knowledge would refer to the individual who taught both the doctor and the engineer how to apply the knowledge they gained to perform their duties. In other words, the individual having the pedagogical knowledge would have been their teachers. 18. Learner-centered instruction The principle of Construction of knowledge under the cognitive and metacognitive factor is rather applicable to the early years of my academic journey. During my junior years of schooling I believe that I was allowed to explore knowledge. I was given the freedom to explore and express myself yet the teacher would always guide me to what I had learned previously. Therefore there was always a link between my new knowledge and my previous knowledge. There appeared to be very little input into new areas or concepts which were not linked in some way to skills and knowledge that was taught before. The second category of motivational and affective factors contains intrinsic motivation to learn which was developed in me from as early as I can remember learning. It began with my parents not forcing but encouraging me to explore and this encouragement was continued by my preschool teacher who made every dimension of learning seem like play. I was always motivated to explore my own way of doing things or a fun way of doing things. It never seemed like learning but more like a game. This love for knowledge continued with me to this stage where I am intrinsically motivated to do. The third category of developmental and social factors incorporated the principle of social influences on learning herein lies the foundation of all my learning habits. Initially my parents and the teacher whom I loved dearly encouraged me to learn so I learned to please them at Junior and Senior level my friends almost deemed me a geek so I quickly learnt to hide the fact that I was brilliant and engage in non-productive activities in the classroom. At tertiary level the intrinsic motivation has returned and is sometimes encouraged by the relationships I now foster. The final category of Individual Differences comprises the principle of individual differences in learning. This principle was clearly demonstrated by my Junior High teachers. I believe they had no choice but to treat each learner as an individual because we were so boisterous in our quest to be treated as an individual. 19. Using technology in the educational environment Technology, in particular, the computer and the internet is a rather useful tool in both classroom and on-line instruction. In the classroom this type of technology can be used to reinforce the meaning and understanding of different concepts through the use of computer-assisted programs. Students can also be asked to do research on various topics and to present their findings in the classroom. On-line instruction requires the use of the internet. It is an exciting phenomenon to be able to liaise with students all over the world as we engage in online learning. Further, both the student and the teacher can benefit from a relaxing environment – one in which there is no threat of traffic and other types of congestion. The major advantages to using this technology is the massive amount of material that can be covered from asking a student to research certain topics for a classroom presentation and the diverse views that students encounter from having discussions with other students all over the globe. In addition, the environment in which the online instruction takes place may be more conducive to quiet learning. What is more there may be a lack of distractions. The disadvantages to this technology are mainly the flip side of its advantages. There may be information overload for the student who is required to research various topics likewise students may be too relaxed in their online setting and give in to the television, the discussions and the refrigerator too often for there to be a lasting momentum established in learning within this environment. Some of the major obstacles an educator may face may be lack of knowledge of how to effectively use the technology. This obstacle may be directly as a result of fear or lack of experience of utilizing the technology. Another obstacle would be the physical challenges that may be involved with the technology such as power outages, viruses which wipe out one’s entire computer system and other physical limitations. Due to the fact that the educator may not be a computer expert there may be major drawbacks to use of this technology as an instructional tool. 20. Motivating students to learn Motivation may be derived from an internal source as well as an external source. Motivation, from an external source, the educator, is the ability of the educator to encourage a student to accomplish both assigned tasks as well as tasks that involve pushing oneself beyond what is expected or asked. Motivation from an inner source implies the energy that drives one to accomplish in spite of difficult circumstances. In Chapter 11 of his Psychology for Teaching, Lefrançois highlights various perspectives on motivation, namely, arousal theory, behaviorist, cognitive and humanistic view of motivation. The historical views of human motivation would not be discussed in this response. The arousal theory involves both physiological and psychological dimensions. The arousal theorists believe that motivation is a function of three things, namely internal condition such as needs or desires of the student, potential outcomes and the student’s deduction of the probability that a certain behavior will lead to a set result. (Lefrançois 2000, p. 410) Arousal ranges from very high to very low. Ideally, humans strive to maintain a balance for optimal functioning. An educator can utilize this theory to motivate students to achieve objectives by attempting to maintain an optimal level of arousal. When arousal level is too low the student would be bored. The educator therefore has to engage students in activities that would raise the level of arousal. Similarly, the educator needs to assist students in reducing their arousal level, especially their test anxiety level. The educator needs to engage in activities and adopt techniques that would maintain students’ arousal at a moderate level. The behaviorist approach to motivation involves the use of negative and positive reinforcement. Both negative and positive reinforcement is used to reduce undesirable behavior and increase the desired behavior. One example of negative reinforcement would be the removal of certain privileges and an example of positive reinforcement would be the use of praise. In the classroom educators must make every effort to utilize these strategies effectively, particularly with reference to praise. Praise is a major factor in the concepts of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Educators must ensure that they utilize praise in a methodical and wise manner. The humanistic approach involves the theory of human needs as established by Abraham Maslow and competence motivation. Maslow promotes that the needs of the student must be met for there to be optimum learning. He posits a hierarchy of needs ranging from physiological needs at the lowest strata and self-actualization at the pinnacle of the hierarchy. Other humanistic theorists believe that Maslow neglected to include the need for competence. R.W. White suggests that humans have a need to be competent and this may results in an increase in self worth. Thus, White believes that competence may be included as a dimension of self-actualization. For the educator this theory assists in the attitude that is developed towards the student. The practices which the educator would adopt such as cooperative learning and the like would develop the intrinsic motivation of the student. The cognitive approach to motivation involves the student having an active and explorative involvement in learning. The teacher encourages the student to achieve self efficacy and so promote a greater desire to succeed. 21. Motivating low-achieving and hard-to-reach students Low achieving and hard–to-reach students can be reached by utilization of a combination of the above theories. Firstly, these students can be achieved by praising even the smallest achievement by the students. Therefore if a student is able to write or is willing to write on something that previously would have meant conflict then the educator can praise the student for this achievement. Praise from a behaviorist view can be an extrinsic motivator in terms of stars and certificates. Moreover, praise, from an humanistic standpoint can act as an intrinsic motivator in that as the educator encourages the low achiever or hard to reach student could ultimately develop intrinsic motivation from a systematic and wise utilization of praise. The expectation factor is also key in the humanistic theory of motivation therefore an educator can adopt an attitude of expectancy for success from the low achievers and hard to reach students. The educator can then utilize cognitive approaches to promote self efficacy and mastery of learning. 22. Importance of classroom management Some issues related to managing a classroom involves the physical structure of the classroom, the number of children in the class, the personality match between the administrative staff and the educator, the number of support personnel available to the classroom teacher and the number of students with diverse learning needs. The physical the physical structure of the classroom, the number of children in the class, the personality match between the administrative staff and the educator, the number of support personnel available to the classroom teacher and the number of students with diverse learning needs. Some of the goals of classroom management include Mastropieri and Scruggs (2005) in Chapter 7 of The Inclusive Classroom suggest establishing ‘a positive classroom atmosphere’ 23. Behavior management in the classroom 24. Standardized versus classroom assessment 25. No Child Left Behind Act . References Lefrançois, Guy. (2000). Psychology for Teaching. Wadsworth Thomas Learning. Mastropieri and Scruggs (2007)The Inclusive Classroom Strategies for Effective Instruction (3rd Edition). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Mc Millain. Research in Education. Allan and Bacon Cognitive apprenticeship. Retrieved November 22, 2008 from www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/models/cog.html Kenneth Lafferty Hess Family Retrieved from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml Cameron, R. J. (2006). Educational Psychology: The distinctive contribution. Vol. 22 Issue 4, p289-304, Read More